/0.J6.  n  . 


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PRINCETON,  N.  J.  , 


Division 


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V.  \3 


Section 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


https://archive.org/details/testsforpracticaOOheal 


Vol.  XIII 
No.  2 


PSYCHOLOGICAL  REVIEW  PUBLICATIONS 


March  1911 
Whole  No  54 


THE 

Psychological  Monographs 

EDITED  BY 

JAMES  R.  ANGELL,  University  of  Chicago 
HOWARD  C.  WARREN,  Princeton  University  {Index) 

JOHN  B.  WATSON,  Johns  Hopkins  University  {Review) 

ARTHUR  H.  PEIRCE,  Smith  College  {Bulletin) 


Tests  for  Practical  Mental  Classification 

By 

William  Healy,  M.D., 

Director  of  the  Chicago  Juvenile  Psychopathic  Institute 

and 

Grace  Maxwell  Fernald,  Ph.D. 

Formerly  Psychologist  of  the  Institute 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE  •  REVIEW  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

41  NORTH  QUEEN  ST.,  LANCASTER,  PA. 

AND  BALTIMORE,  MD. 

Agents:  G.  E.  STECHERT  &  CO.,  London  (2  Star  Yard,  Carey  St,,  W.  C.); 
Leipzig  (Hospital  St.,  10);  Paris  (76  rue  de  Rennes) 


Appreciatively  Dedicated 


TO 

MRS.  W.  F.  DUMMER 


WHO  HAS  MADE  THIS  WORK  POSSIBLE 


PREFACE 


The  work  of  the  Juvenile  Psychopathic  Institute  of  Chi¬ 
cago  is  centered  on  the  highly  important  problem  of  causa¬ 
tive  factors  of  the  criminalistic  career.  For  many  reasons 
the  study  of  the  young  repeated  offender  is  to  be  regarded  as 
containing  much  promise.  In  the  first  place,  statistics  have 
amply  proven  him  to  be  the  future  criminal — lacking  Ameri¬ 
can  figures  on  this  point  we  may  cite  Matz,  who  states  that 
among  the  entire  prison  population  of  the  province  of  Pom- 
mern  seventy  per  cent  have  received  their  first  punishment 
during  their  minority  and  that  of  those  repeatedly  sentenced, 
by  far  the  greatest  number  have  received  their  first  convic¬ 
tion  by  the  time  they  were  seventeen  years  old.  The  fac¬ 
tors  then  which  make  for  criminality  are  nearly  always  already 
present  before  the  end  of  adolescence.  In  the  second  place, 
the  young  recidivist  is  definitely  regarded  as  a  problem  by 
parents,  teachers,  and  officers,  who  frequently  welcome  any 
light  which  may  be  thrown  on  the  case.  At  this  period  in  a 
criminalistic  career  it  is  easiest  to  get  cooperation  from  par¬ 
ents  and  families  in  the  study  of  the  individual.  Sometimes 
this  is  of  the  utmost  importance,  as  when  conditions  of  envi¬ 
ronment,  heredity  and  more  particularly  of  developmental 
history,  which  have  great  bearing  on  the  case,  are  revealed. 
Thirdly,  the  individual  during  childhood  or  early  youth  is 
usually  at  a  much  better  age  for  the  ascertainment  of  mental 
qualities  than  at  a  later  and  less  naive  period.  Fourthly, 
the  study  of  the  individual  has  a  much  greater  chance  of  being 
valuable  at  this  age,  when  remedial  measures  will  find  greater 
mental  and  moral  flexibility,  than  at  any  later  period  in  life. 

The  amount  of  light  that  may  be  thrown  upon  these  per¬ 
sonal  problems,  both  as  regards  the  welfare  of  the  individual 
and  the  protection  of  society,  can  only  be  shown,  of  course, 
by  case  studies.  Suffice  it  now  to  say  that  a  glance  at  the 


VI 


PREFACE 


results  of  thorough-going  studies  will  demonstrate  their  abso¬ 
lute  necessity  if  the  right  thing  is  to  be  done  at  the  right 
time  for  the  heading  off  of  a  criminalistic  career. 

We  of  the  Juvenile  Psychopathic  Institute  have  been  most 
fortunate  in  our  psychologist  friends.  At  the  inception  of 
our  effort  the  policies  of  our  psychological  work  were  shaped 
largely  in  accord  with  the  advice  of  men  who  were  in  the  best 
position  to  know  what  should  be  done,  and  during  the  pro¬ 
gress  of  the  last  two  years  in  the  building  up  of  our  set  of  tests, 
we  have  had  much  occasion  to  feel  grateful  for  help  received 
in  many  ways  in  the  shape  of  suggestions  and  encouragements 
and  criticisms.  It  is  hopeless  to  attempt  to  specify  propor¬ 
tions  and  points  of  help  received.  Messrs.  Angell,  O’Shea, 
Dearborn,  Whipple,  B.  T,  Baldwin,  Sidis,  Sanford,  Thorndike, 
Goddard,  Sharp,  Woodworth,  Muensterberg,  MacMillan, 
Freeman,  Jastrow,  W.  E.  Fernald,  Bruner,  Huey  and 
J.  W.  Hayes  have  all  been  constructively  helpful.  To 
them  the  director  of  this  Institute  wishes  to  express  his 
grateful  acknowledgement.  To  Professor  Angell  we  are 
deeply  indebted  for  assistance  of  various  kinds,  which  has 
been  given  ever  since  the  earliest  working  plans  of  the 
Institute  were  under  consideration. 

After  the  Institute  had  been  established  for  a  few  months 
Dr.  Grace  M.  Fernald  came  in  as  psychologist  and  was  with 
us  for  a  year.  To  her  is  due  much  praise  for  patient  effort  in 
our  gradual  development  of  the  tests  as  well  as  for  the  special 
points  which  are  credited  to  her  in  the  text.  Miss  Clara 
Schmitt  at  one  time  voluntarily  gave  much  help.  The  pres¬ 
ent  psychologist  of  the  Institute  is  Dr.  Mary  H.  S.  Hayes. 
Her  work  has  been  most  helpful  towards  perfecting  methods 
of  recording  and  scoring  of  tests. 

The  director  of  the  Institute  assumes  entire  responsibility 
for  the  text  of  this  monograph. 

January,  1911. 


W.  H. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Introduction .  i 

Test  I.  Introductory  Picture  Form  Board .  ii 

Test  II.  Special  Picture  Puzzle .  13 

Test  III.  Construction  Puzzle  (A) . . .  14 

Test  IV.  Construction  Puzzle  (B) .  16 

Test  V.  Puzzle  Box .  18 

Test  VI.  ‘Aussage’ — Testimony  from  a  Picture .  21 

Test  VII.  Visual  Memory  of  Geometric  Figures .  25 

Test  VIII.  Learning  Test — Arbitrary  Associations .  27 

Test  IX.  Cross-Line  Test  (A) .  28 

Test  X.  Cross-Line  Test  (B) .  30 

Test  XI.  Code  Test .  33 

Test  XII.  Memory  from  Visual  Verbal  Presentation .  34 

Test  XIII.  Memory  from  Auditory  Verbal  Presentation .  36 

Test  XIV.  Instruction  Box .  38 

Test  XV.  Association  of  Verbal  Opposites — Anton5mis .  41 

Test  XVI.  Motor  Coordination  Test .  42 

Test  XVII.  Writing .  44 

Test  XVIII.  Arithmetic .  44 

Test  XIX.  Reading .  45 

Test  XX.  Checkers .  45 

Test  XXI.  Reactions  to  Moral  Questions .  46 

Test  XXII.  Information .  49 

Tentative  Classification .  50 

Score  Records .  53 


vii 


TESTS  FOR  USE  IN  PRACTICAL  MENTAL 
CLASSIFICATION 


Introduction 

Diagnosis  of  mental  capabilities  and  adaptabilities  as  far 
as  this  might  be  practically  possible,  was  seen  at  the  outset 
of  the  work  of  the  Juvenile  Psychopathic  Institute  to  be  one 
of  the  main  desiderata  in  our  study  of  individuals  who  are 
young  members  of  the  criminalistic  class  or  who  are  other¬ 
wise  repeatedly  delinquent. 

It  appears  perfectly  plain  to  any  one  who  thoughtfully 
views  the  general  criminalistic  situation  and  especially  the 
procedure  of  courts  which  deal  with  offenders  who  are  pre¬ 
sumably  more  or  less  in  the  formative  period,  that  the  agen¬ 
cies  intended  to  produce  the  desired  reform  are  set  in  operation 
without  any  careful  ascertainment  of  the  actual  needs  of  the 
individual  as  such.  In  other  words,  treatment  is  definitely 
undertaken  without  diagnosis.  The  most  cursory  inspection 
shows  that  many  cases  appear  in  our  courts  presenting  ex¬ 
tremely  difficult  problems.  This  fact,  together  with  observa¬ 
tion  of  the  failures  of  institutional  treatment,  due  frequently, 
as  many  institutional  men  say,  to  improper  classification 
and  disposal  of  the  offender,  is  leading  many  people  who  are 
acquainted  with  first  hand  facts  to  the  conclusion  that,  per¬ 
haps,  one  of  the  greatest  causes  of  the  lack  of  success  in  our 
handling  of  criminals  has  been  our  neglect  of  the  study  of 
their  actual  mental  conditions,  needs  and  adaptabilities.  Par¬ 
ticularly  does  it  seem  that  both  they  and  society  could  profit, 
if  carefully  adapted  regenerative  or  protective  measures  might 
be  undertaken  at  the  age  when  habits  and  character  are  being 
set.  As  for  ourselves,  it  has  been  borne  in  upon  us  that  the 
great  call  is  for  some  practical  methods  of  accurately  deter¬ 
mining  what  really  may  best  be  done  for  this  or  that  individ- 


2 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


ual  offender  in  order  that  society  may  cease  to  suffer  from 
his  or  her  delinquencies.  Note,  not  what  ought  to  be  done  to 
them  but  what  ought  to  be  done  for  them.  The  recognition 
that  the  protection  of  society  lies  in  the  application  of  this 
formula  and  that  the  failure  of  the  past  in  the  matter  is  largely 
due  to  unscientifically  applied  retributions  and  repressions 
is  the  key  note  of  the  new  criminology. 

There  are,  of  course,  a  number  of  points  of  view  from  which 
this  whole  problem  of  the  peculiarities  and  possibilities  of 
the  repeatedly  delinquent  individual  may  be  approached — 
sociological,  medical  and  psychological.  We  have  outlined 
them  elsewhere.^  Even  in  the  psychological  field  there  are 
standpoints,  especially  of  abnormal  psychology,  other  than 
that  which  will  be  presented  in  this  paper.  However,  we 
have  been  convinced  that  in  order  to  do  effective  justice  to 
the  total  situation  involved  in  any  given  case,  whether  in 
court  or  not,  there  certainly  must  be  in  every  instance  an 
estimation  for  practical  purposes  and,  of  course,  by  practicable 
methods  of  (a)  mental  ability  independent,  as  much  as  pos¬ 
sible,  of  the  results  of  formal  education;  (b)  the  extent  and 
result  of  formal  education;  (c)  the  preponderating  opportun¬ 
ities  and  interests,  in  the  life  of  the  individual  [or  lack  of 
what  might  be  rationally  expected  to  be  normal  opportuni¬ 
ties  and  interests],  as  shown  by  some  study  of  mental  content. 
It  is  with  these  three  points  that  we  are  especially  concerned 
in  this  paper.  We  must  here,  once  for  all,  insistently  dis¬ 
claim  that  we  think  that  under  these  heads  one  can  find  out, 
even  in  the  majority  of  cases,  all  that  is  best  to  be  done  for 
the  individual.  We  have  seen  many  instances  where  the 
essential  trouble  was  discovered  only  by  inquiry  instituted 
from  an  entirely  different  point  of  view.  It  is  clear,  at  all 
events,  that  these  three  considerations,  in  the  general  survey 
of  the  individual  and  the  factors  in  his  development,  must 
never  be  disregarded. 

The  desirability  of  psychological  work  in  connection  with 
courts  which  have  to  do  with  the  disposition  of  criminals  and 

1  Journal  of  Amer.  Institute  of  Criminal  Law  and  Criminology,  Vol.  i,  No.  i,  May, 
1910.  Also  ‘a  System  of  Recording  Data,’  Bulletin  No.  2  of  the  same  Institute. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


3 


delinquents,  especially  juvenile  courts,  is  perhaps  hardly 
^necessary  to  emphasize  to  readers  of  this  paper.  But  still 
it  may  be  worth  mentioning  that  the  judge  with  his  slender 
opportunities  for  observation  and  his  lack  of  results  of  care¬ 
fully  conducted  examinations  is  often  in  a  poor  position  to 
do  the  best  that  could  be  done.  We  know  too  much  about 
mental  defectives  who  have  the  gift  of  language,  appearing 
bright  and  with  good  enough  presence  to  readily  pass  muster 
in  court,  we  know  too  much  of  defectives  who  can  do  well 
under  the  prescribed  conditions  of  institutional  life,  to  believe 
that  without  competent  psychological  examination  differen¬ 
tiation  can  be  safely  made  between  those  whom  it  is  wise 
for  society  to  allow  out  on  probation  and  those  who  in  the 
interests  of  social  protection  should  have  proper  institutional 
or  other  guardianship. 

After  nearly  two  years  of  continuous  daily  work  in  our  Insti¬ 
tute  ,  which  has  been  generously  endowed  and  which  has  received 
a  splendid  amount  of  assistance  from  able  psychologists,  to 
whom  grateful  acknowledgement  has  already  been  made,  we 
find  ourselves  using  methods  and  a  set  of  tests  which  we  have 
for  the  most  part  ourselves  developed.  On  account  of  their 
practical  nature  and  the  demand  which  exists  for  them,  the 
time  for  publication  seems  ripe,  but  it  is  to  he  distinctly  under¬ 
stood  that  we  ourselves  still  regard  our  tests  and  methods  as 
strictly  tentative.  We  have  tried  out  and  discarded  a  good 
many  tests  which  have  been  offered,  or  which  wehave  devised, 
and  it  may  be  that  it  will  prove  desirable  to  eliminate  some 
of  the  present  series — we  already  know  them  to  be  of  unequal 
value— or  to  add  others.  However  that  may  be,  our  set 
has  been  developed  as  the  outcome  of  careful,  practical  work. 
It  embodies  the  results  of  repeated  conferences  with  various 
psychologists  who  have  been  willing  to  give  their  attention 
to  the  needs  of  this  bit  of  semi-public  work  in  which  we  are 
engaged. 

The  wisdom  of  developing  our  tests  along  lines  befitting 
our  eminently  practical  purposes  has  been  well  proven.  The 
early  advice  of  a  number  of  eminent  American  psychologists 
to  avoid  mechanical  laboratory  apparatus  accorded  with  our 


4 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


first  survey  of  the  necessities  and  ends  of  the  work.  We 
needed  tests,  not  for  the  purpose  of  analyzing  out  or  measuring 
the  simplest  mental  elements  or  small  differences,  but  rather  for' 
estimating  the  quality  and  quantity  of  the  more  general 
complex  mental  characteristics — particularly  such  as  are 
involved  in  the  intellectual  and  moral  judgments,  the  perform¬ 
ance  of  occupational  tasks  and  other  reactions  of  actual  daily 
life;  such  mental  characteristics,  in  a  word,  as  might  be  sus¬ 
pected  of  being  correlated  with  variations  from  the  moral 
standards  of  society.  One  point  has  had  to  be  carefully 
guarded  all  along — it  is  most  necessary  in  such  work  with  our 
cosmopolitan  population  to  eliminate  the  language  factor  as 
much  as  possible.  In  predicting  the  possible  development  of 
an  individual  under  various  conditions  it  is  most  desirable 
to  ascertain  the  mental  ability  quite  apart  from  the  individ¬ 
ual’s  experience  in  formal  training  in  our  language,  or  indeed 
in  any  language.  It  often  becomes  necessary  to  classify  men¬ 
tally  a  subject  who  has  had  no  education  in  English-speaking 
schools,  or,  indeed,  who  has  had  but  little  schooling  of  any 
kind.  On  one  occasion  we  found  ourselves  able  to  demon¬ 
strate  satisfactorily  that  a  gypsy  boy  of  15,  quite  innocent  of 
schooling  and  knowledge  of  the  ‘three  R’s’,  had  at  least  fair, 
if  not  good,  native  ability.  And  repeatedly  a  number  of 
our  tests  have  proven  most  serviceable  in  mentally  classify¬ 
ing  young  deaf  and  dumb  children.  Altogether  we  know  that 
by  the  use  of  these  tests  and  inquiries  most  efficient  aid  is 
obtained  in  the  making  of  diagnoses  which  lead  to  recom¬ 
mendations  for  the  handling  of  the  individual,  but,  no  doubt, 
we  shall  ourselves  in  the  future  find  improvements.  In  the 
meantime  we  specifically  invite  suggestions  and  criticisms  to 
the  end  that  better  work  may  be  done  all  along  the  line  on 
this  vastly  important  subject. 

Our  initial  investigation  into  this  field  showed  no  set  of 
mental  tests  at  all  adequate  to  give  the  desired  information 
about  the  capabilities  of  delinquents.  We  found  that  the 
average  age  of  the  repeated  offender  to  be  studied  was  15 
years,  while  we  must  occasionally  see  children  as  young  as  8 
years  old,  and  that  sometimes  we  should  also  see  young  adults. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


5 


These  individuals  range  in  mental  capacity  all  the  way  from 
imbecility  to  those  who  seem  considerably  to  excel  the  ordin¬ 
ary  person  of  their  age  in  ability  and  information.  We  have 
had  to  evolve  practical  methods  for  estimating  this  entire 
array  of  abilities  except  for  those  of  children  under  lo  and 
for  the  definitely  feeble-minded.  In  working  with  these  two 
latter  classes  we  have  used  the  Binet  classification,  especially 
for  the  diagnosis  of  the  institutional  type  of  feeble-minded. 
Like  other  workers  in  this  field,  we  have  found  this  system 
extremely  valuable,  but  still  presenting  a  number  of  imper¬ 
fections.  It  helps  very  little  where  the  language  factor  is  a 
barrier,  either  on  account  of  foreign  parentage  or  insufficient 
schooling,  and  with  uneducated  deaf  and  dumb  children.  Of 
the  tests  which  form  our  own  set,  a  few  have  beenwell  worked 
up  by  other  investigators  before  us.  Proper  acknowledge¬ 
ment  will  be  made  in  each  instance. 

Our  tendency  has  steadily  been  towards  making  our  use 
of  tests  and  inquiries  more  and  more  thorough.  Experience 
teaches  us  that  a  cursory  examination  may  lead  to  unsound 
conclusions  which  in  turn  may  be  made  the  basis  of  thoroughly 
unadapted  attempts  at  betterment.  At  the  same  time,  per¬ 
force  of  circumstances,  we  have  been  obliged,  as  every  other 
worker  will  be  obliged,  to  keep  within  practicable  working 
conditions.  This  means  that  while  one  may  be  able  to  spend 
the  equivalent  of  an  entire  day’s  work  on  one  case,  or  occa¬ 
sionally  the  equivalent  of  two  or  three  days’  work,  a  longer 
time  will  probably  be  found  almost  everywhere  impracticable. 
We  are  by  no  means  sure  that  for  the  first  diagnosis  it  will  be 
found  necessary.  Almost  any  reasonable  expenditure  of 
effort  would  be  economical,  of  course,  to  head  off  a  criminal¬ 
istic  career,  but  secondary  to  the  original  estimation  of  the 
individual  and  his  needs  there  should  be,  whenever  possible, 
follow-up  work  in  the  shape  of  evaluation  of  changing  phases 
of  the  individual’s  development  and  of  the  results  of  amelio¬ 
rative  measures,  which  may  have  been  instituted.  We  have 
striven  always  to  make  tests,  not  for  the  test’s  sake,  but  for 
the  sake  of  knowing  the  individual. 

Since  one  of  our  tests  has  only  recently  been  evolved,  and 


6 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


some  have  lately  been  modified, and  in  still  others  new  methods 
of  scoring  have  been  devised,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  certain 
ones  have  been  long  used  by  us  as  well  as  by  others  before  us,  it 
follows  that  our  knowledge  of  the  norms  for  the  different  tests 
is  exceedingly  unequal.  However,  we  know  that  no  one  of 
them  is  too  difficult  and  that  none  of  them  involves  too  much 
time  in  getting  positive  results.  We  are  able  to  give  the  work¬ 
ing  limitations  for  even  the  newest  of  them,  but  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  actual  norms  is  a  matter  for  the  future  and  will  be  a 
separate  contribution.  The  critical  findings  of  other  investi¬ 
gators  will,  we  hope,  be  of  great  value.  As  it  stands  now,  what 
the  set  of  tests  and  inquiries  offers  is  an  opportunity  for  mak¬ 
ing  a  practical,  work-a-day  classification  and  estimate  of  capa¬ 
bilities  that  shall  tend  to  throw  valuable  light  on  what  ought 
to  be  done  with  those  individuals  who  are  distinct  problems 
from  a  normal  standpoint,  and  this  whether  the  case  is  to  be 
adjudicated  by  the  officers  of  the  law  or  handled  by  family 
guardians. 

Concerning  the  possibility  of  getting  hold  of  the  individual 
in  the  right  way  for  ascertaining  the  scientific  truths  desir¬ 
able,  we  ought  to  say  in  explanation  and  for  the  encourage¬ 
ment  of  those  who  contemplate  anything  like  a  similar  en¬ 
deavor,  that  we  have  been  overjoyed  to  find  the  heartiest 
cooperation  both  on  the  part  of  parents  and  of  children. 
There  were  some  doubts  at  the  outset  about  possible  dis¬ 
turbing  emotional  attitudes  and  interfering  recalcitrancies, 
but  we  have  found  these  untoward  possibilities  practically 
negligible. 

We  have  discovered  at  least  two  phenomena  that  have 
worked  greatly  in  our  favor;  the  first  is  that  the  individual 
before  his  case  is  adjudicated  in  any  way,  either  in  court  or 
out  of  it,  is,  in  the  vast  majority  of  instances,  peculiarly  keen 
to  show  the  full  extent  of  his  ability.  On  several  occasions  we 
had  the  experience  of  finding  that  the  individual  already 
committed,  we  will  say  to  a  reformatory,  was  a  totally  differ¬ 
ent  being  from  one  whose  case  was  pending,  or  who  was  on 
probation  and  who  had  the  possibilities  and  hopes  and 
encouragements  of  the  future  before  him.  Then,  second,  we 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


7 


also  found  that  there  seems  to  be  a  certain  age,  varying  con¬ 
siderably  in  different  individuals,  but  below  which  one  can 
expect  naivete  and  a  peculiarly  frank  attitude  toward  the 
world,  even  in  some  of  the  morally  worst  of  the  boys  and  girls, 
and  beyond  which  age,  as  a  rule,  except  by  dint  of  much 
greater  effort,  one  can  not  hope  to  develop  the  friendly 
relationships  which  are  necessary  for  getting  the  scientific 
data.  Below  this  age,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  the  time  of 
responsiveness,  openness  and  usual  truthfulness — prevari¬ 
cations  then  being  often  of  such  ingenuous  character  that  they 
are  readily  recognizable — beyond  that  period  is  secretive¬ 
ness,  aloofness,  the  development  of  a  definite  attitude,  it 
may  be  of  grudge,  toward  the  world;  the  individual  has  often 
built  up  a  wall  in  front  of  himself  that  is  hard  to  break  down. 
A  little  experience  on  these  points  would  demonstrate  to 
many  a  criminologist  where  his  work  ought  to  begin. 

It  seems  that  nearly  always  the  approach  to  the  tests  is 
much  less  self-conscious  in  young  people  than  in  adults,  and 
this  not  altogether  on  account  of  the  fact  that  they  are  con¬ 
stantly  being  asked  for  response  to  tests  in  school,  for  we 
have  observed  it  in  children  who  have  been  to  school  little  or 
not  at  all.  With  the  idea  of  invoking  always  as  much  interest 
as  possible  in  our  tests,  we  have  ever  had  in  mind  the  devel¬ 
opment  of  them  in  forms  resembling  games  and  puzzles,  but 
really  involving  points  much  more  open  than  puzzles  to  solu¬ 
tion  by  use  of  simple  reasoning  ability.  This  has  seemed 
highly  successful,  for  it  has  been  our  frequent  experience 
to  have  our  subject  want  to  do  the  things  all  over  again. 
Another  condition  for  achieving  success  must  never  be  lost 
sight  of,  that  is  the  presentation  of  a  winning  and  encour¬ 
aging  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  investigator.  Binet  is 
right;  if  one  wishes  to  get  tests  fairly  used  there  must  be 
constant  encouragement  and  stimulus,  even  in  the  face  of 
poor  results,  provided  earnest  effort  has  been  made. 

It  is  of  considerable  importance  in  most  instances  to  have 
the  school  record  of  an  individual  in  order  to  evaluate  his 
present  standing  in  regard  to  both  information  and  the  results 
of  formal  education.  Naturally,  the  type  of  school  an  indi- 


8 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


vidual  has  attended,  whether  or  not  his  learning  has  been 
mostly  in  a  foreign  language,  as  is  the  case  with  some  of  our 
subjects  born  in  this  country,  whether  there  has  been  much 
truancy  or  absence  from  other  cause,  the  type  of  instruction 
in  that  particular  school,  the  attitude  of  the  teacher  and  the 
individual  towards  each  other,  the  age  at  which  schooling  was 
begun  and  ended,  the  grade  reached  and  whether  that  grade 
was  the  standard  of  the  good  school  system,  if  retardation  in 
school,  what  cause  was  assigned — all  these  are  factors  about 
which  much  can  be  frequently  ascertained  through  the  family, 
or  the  officer  in  charge,  or  directly  from  the  teachers  and 
principals. 

The  order  in  which  the  following  tests  are  given  may  be 
varied  according  to  the  needs  of  the  given  situation,  and  par¬ 
ticularly  to  the  apparent  interests  evoked  during  the  exami¬ 
nation.  We  have  arranged  the  set  with  the  idea  of  grouping 
for  expository  purposes  those  tests  which  involve  the  same 
general  forms  of  mental  activity.  To  avoid  fatigue  and  keep 
up  interest  we  specifically  advise  against  giving  them  in  this 
logical  order.  Very  frequently  we  find  it  necessary  and  advis¬ 
able  to  divide  them  for  different  sittings  and  such  division 
is  made  quite  irrespective  of  any  given  grouping.  To  hold 
attention  and  interest  seems  quite  the  most  essential  con¬ 
dition.  With  these  precautions  we  are  seldom  bothered  by 
apparent  fatigue,  but,  of  course,  one  should  be  on  the  look¬ 
out  for  it.  The  only  test  which  is  intended  to  be  given  in  a 
definite  order  is  the  one  so  specifically  named,  the  introduc¬ 
tory  puzzle. 

In  common  with  other  workers  on  mental  tests,  we  insist 
on  the  necessity  of  our  tests  being  made  exactly  as  we  pre¬ 
scribe  and  being  used  precisely  as  we  stipulate,  if  anything 
like  comparative  results  are  aimed  at.  We  have  seen  one  of 
our  designs,  for  instance,  made  by  a  competent  laboratory 
mechanic,  which  would  not  conform  to  the  apparently  small 
requirement  that  certain  parts  be  interchangeable.  In  con¬ 
sequence  it  failed  entirely  to  bring  out  the  very  point  that 
we  found  most  valuable  in  estimating  the  ability  of  the  sub¬ 
ject.  The  entire  set  is  quite  inexpensive  and  is  readily  made 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


9 


by  any  one  with  even  a  moderate  amount  of  mechanical 
ingenuity.  The  description  of  each,  it  is  hoped,  will  be, 
accurate  and  ample  enough  to  enable  any  qualified  investi¬ 
gator  to  make,  or  to  have  made,  the  test  apparatus  so  pre¬ 
cisely  that  every  point  of  virtue  may  be  thoroughly  brought 
out. 

Methods  of  scoring  will  be,  of  course,  exceedingly  important 
in  connection  with  the  use  of  each  test.  One  of  the  valuable 
bits  of  work  done  in  the  Institute  has  been  in  estimating  the 
kind  of  successes  and  kind  of  failures  that  have  been  made  in 
the  various  tests.  No  single  method  of  scoring  could  be 
regarded  as  generally  valid  and  so  in  each  case  the  treatment 
of  the  results  obtained  has  had  to  be  gradually  worked  out. 
The  methods  of  scoring  will  be  carefully  specified  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  a  description  of  each  test.  The  meaning  of  the  sep¬ 
arate  points  we  hope  will  be  gradually  made  clearer  by  fur¬ 
ther  work.  It  may  be  that  for  some  tests  a  system  of  per¬ 
centage  marks,  calculated  upon  a  basis  of  differently  weighted 
details,  will  be  found  most  desirable.  But  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  we  think  it  will  be  clear  to  any  one  who  applies  the 
series,  that  even  the  rougher  results  obtainable  from  the  use 
of  the  set  as  a  whole,  as  it  now  stands  with  the  method  of 
scorings  given,  are  most  valuable  from  a  practical  stand¬ 
point.  Reference  to  the  chapter  on  classification  will  give 
some  indication  of  practical  findings. 

For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  practicability  of  such  a  set 
of  tests  as  ours,  it  seems  desirable  to  give  a  concrete  illustra¬ 
tion  of  the  working  up  of  a  case  from  this  standpoint  with 
the  findings  under  each  test.  A  subject  who  may  be  desig¬ 
nated  as  Case  574  will  be  taken.  This  is  a  city  boy,  15  years 
old  and  of  American  parentage.  This  particular  individual 
has  been  selected  not  because  he  represents,  except  as  to 
age,  any  sort  of  an  average — it  is  as  difficult  a  matter  here 
as  elsewhere  to  speak  of  an  average  individual — but  simply 
because  he  represents  in  difficulty  just  such  a  problem  as 
is  handled  every  day  by  Juvenile  Court  officers.  Physically 
he  is  rather  under-developed  and  nourished,  has  a  poorly 
developed  chest  and  poor  color.  He  has  a  frequently  recur¬ 
ring  habit  spasm  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye  lids.  No  trouble 


10 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


with  the  special  senses  noted.  Expression  rather  pleasant, 
manner  polite,  but  he  looks  much  worried  and  cries  at  times 
bitterly.  The  main  points  in  his  developmental  history  are 
that  he  had  scarlet  fever  six  years  ago  and  was  then  very 
ill.  Before  that  time  he  had  an  attack  of  chorea  which 
lasted  long  and  four  or  five  years  ago  he  had  another  pro¬ 
longed  attack.  The  twitching  of  his  eyes  began  a  couple  of 
years  ago.  At  ten  years  of  age  he  began  smoking;  when 
with  his  street  companions  he  frequently  smoked  from 
ten  to  fifteen  cigarettes  a  day.  The  father  died  six  years 
ago.  He  was  a  good  man.  The  mother  is  a  fairly  intelli¬ 
gent  and  hard  working  woman  who  has  moved  away  from 
the  home  which  her  husband  left  her,  and  where  they  had 
lived  for  fifteen  years,  because  this  boy  was  going  with  bad 
companions  in  the  neighborhood.  Last  summer  she  put 
him  with  his  brother  out  in  the  country  for  a  couple  of  months 
and  when  there,  the  boy  did  well  and  did  not  smoke.  No 
indication  in  any  other  way  of  other  bad  habits  except  occa¬ 
sionally  playing  with  dice.  The  boy  passed  for  eighth  grade  in 
the  public  school.  He  had  left  school  some  ten  months  prior 
to  the  time  we  saw  him.  The  longest  he  has  worked  in  any 
one  place  since  then  has  been  one  week.  In  the  meantime 
he  has  been  going  pretty  steadily  with  the  companions  with 
whom  he  got  into  trouble  before  he  left  school.  With  them 
he  has  been  engaged  in  some  petty  thievery.  The  mother 
and  the  officers  have  regarded  this  boy  as  a  pretty  serious 
problem,  particularly  because  he  seemed  to  be  very  smart 
and  yet  in  spite  of  repeated  promises  to  the  judge  and  others, 
repeatedly  got  into  trouble  that  would  seem  readily  avoidable. 
As  the  mother  put  it,  “What  could  be  the  matter  with  him 
that  he  should  show  so  little  sense.  Had  his  nervous  trouble 
affected  his  mind.?’’ 

The  reader  who  looks  over  the  results  of  the  tests  on  this 
case  should  realize  that  the  records  are  nearly  all  exception¬ 
ally  good  even  for  our  fifteen  year  old  subjects.  From  a  psy¬ 
chological  standpoint  we  decided  that  this  boy  was  in  ability 
considerably  above  the  ordinary  individual  we  see.  Pro¬ 
portionately,  his  information  was  extremely  narrow  in  range, 
particularly  lacking  was  the  interest  in  the  things  which 
healthy  minded  boys  are  usually  most  fond  of. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  TESTS 


Test  I.  Introductory  Picture  Form  Board 

The  novel  method  of  combining  the  idea  of  the  test  form 
board  with  the  picture  puzzle  was  developed  because  of  the 
obvious  interest  there  might  be  in  such  a  test  and  because  in 
the  doing  of  it  various  elements  of  mental  life  are  brought  into 
play.  This  particular  pattern  has  worked  out  successfully 
as  an  introductory  test.  It  enables  the  investigator  often  to 
get  a  rough  estimate  of  the  subject’s  whereabouts  in  the  scale 
of  mental  ability  and  it  furnishes  the  latter  with  a  task  in 
which  he  is  interested  and  in  which,  unless  he  falls  low  in  the 
grade  of  the  feeble-minded,  he  always  has,  at  least,  some  meas¬ 
ure  of  success.  It  is  readily  seen  that  the  test  brings  out 
what  the  ordinary  form  board  brings  out,  viz.,  perception  of 
differences  in  form,  powers  of  coordination  in  handling  the 
pieces,  the  ability  to  learn  by  the  experiences  of  trial  and 
success  and  that  beyond  this,  it  may  afford  some  gauge  of 
the  perception  of  the  relationship  of  object  to  object,  of 
parts  to  the  whole — a  most  valuable  faculty  in  life.  If  a 
boy  observes,  ‘Oh,  gee!  that  dog’s  caught  a  mouse’,  or 
‘There’s  a  baby  horse  standing  by  its  mother’,  one  gets  some 
impression  of  the  subject’s  mentality.  But  if  the  attempt 
to  put  an  animal’s  head  In  upside  down  is  persistently  made, 
that  likewise  bespeaks  certain  mental  characteristics. 

The  design  shows  a  certain  number  of  pieces  cut  out  on  the 
natural  lines  of  some  of  the  objects  in  a  picture  together  with 
four  other  pieces,  one  of  which  is  irregular  in  shape,  and  three 
of  which  are  cut  on  geometrical  lines.  Two  of  these  last 
somewhat  resemble  each  other,  but  are  not  interchangeable. 
The  other  geometrical  piece  is  an  equilateral  triangle  divided 
into  two  right  angle  triangles.  This  last  was  particularly 
to  provide  for  a  simple  trial  and  error  procedure,  if  the  make- 


12 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


up  of  the  parent  triangle  was  not  at  once  recognized — as  it  usu¬ 
ally  is  not.  The  plan  is  readily  perceived  from  Figs,  i  and  3. 
This  design  as  well  as  a  number  of  our  others,  as  will  be  appar¬ 
ent  from  the  illustrations,  may  be  made  very  readily  and  ser¬ 
viceably  from  selected,  3-ply,  scroll-saw  wood.  For  this 
introductory  test  a  suitable  picture,  about  8  by  ii  inches, 
from  a  child’s  picture  book  is  carefully  glued  with  strong  glue 
to  the  wood.  The  pieces  are  then  readily  cut  out  with  a 
scroll  or  bracket  saw. 

The  method  of  procedure  is  worth  noting  here,  not  because 
this  test  is  regarded  in  any  way  as  one  of  the  more  exact  of 
our  series,  but  because  it  is  representative  of  the  general 
precautionary  methods,  which  must  in  fairness  be  followed 
in  all  of  them.  To  begin  with,  the  subject  is  told  in  a  general 
way  what  you  are  going  to  do  with  him  in  the  examination. 
We  often  tell  him  we  wish  to  see  how  good  he  is  at  doing 
things,  how  exact  and  how  quick,  and  we  often  first  show  the 
stop-watch,  nearly  always  an  object  of  much  interest,  at 
least  to  boys.  Then  the  picture  with  its  empty  spaces  is  put 
before  him  in  good  light.  At  its  side,  spread  out  right  side 
up  and  well  mixed,  are  placed  the  separate  pieces.  He  is 
then  told  that  here  is  an  easy  picture  to  put  together  and  you 
want  to  see  how  quickly  he  can  do  it.  Most  of  our  twelve 
year  old  children  succeed  in  doing  this  test  in  from  one  to 
three  minutes. 

Scoring:  The  variety  and  possible  combination  of  mental 
elements  which  may  be  used  in  putting  this  picture  form  board 
together  is  so  great  that  standardization  for  scoring,  except 
in  very  rough  ways,  is  undesirable.  Time  is  of  course  taken 
and  is  registered  from  the  moment  the  subject  gets  to  work, 
but  much  more  important  than  the  time  is  the  study  of  the 
method  by  which  the  task  is  done.  Occasionally  the  degree 
of  facility  of  muscular  coordination  is  worth  noting.  By  far 
the  commonest  difficulty  is  in  correct  placing  of  the  two  right 
angle  triangles  in  the  parent  equilateral  triangle.  The  most 
frequent  error  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  enumeration  of 
the  points  for  scoring,  with  their  respectively  designated 
numbers  is  as  follows:  (See  above.) 


Fto.  r 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  3 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


13 


1.  Time — (if  the  problem  is  not  solved  at  the  end  of  ten 
minutes,  it  is  considered  a  failure  and  recorded  ‘F’,  or  in 
cases  where  the  child  gives  up  and  can  not  be  induced  to 
continue,  the  letter  ‘F’  is  recorded  with  the  time,  for  example, 
F-6'  20"). 

2.  Poor  perception  of  form;  for  example,  trying  to  place 
a  triangle  in  a  curved  opening. 

3.  Persistent  effort  to  force  parts  into  impossible  openings. 

4.  Noticeable  trial  and  error  in  working  with  the  double 
triangles. 

5.  Noticeable  repetition  of  impossibilities  in  working  with 
the  double  triangles.  (This  test  is  introductorily  given  to 
invoke  interest  and  to  gain  general  impressions,  so  it  does  not 
seem  necessary  to  quantify  the  term  ‘noticeable’.) 

The  record  on  Case  574  is: 

1.  2'  5" 

2.  No. 

3.  No. 

4.  No. 

5.  No. 

Test  II.  Special  Picture  Puzzle 

This  test  was  designed  to  show  primarily  the  apperception 
of  the  relationships  of  well  defined  and  easily  recognized  parts 
to  a  given  whole.  Beyond  this  it,  of  course,  roughly  demon¬ 
strates  sensory  discriminations  of  form  and  color.  The  im¬ 
port  of  this  test  can  not  be  brought  out  except  by  its  careful 
construction.  The  pieces  are  properly  sawed  out  with  a 
certain  amount  of  bilateral  symmetry  in  pairs,  so  that  one  can 
not  readily  put  them  in  position  when  guided  by  form  alone. 
But  on  every  piece  there  has  been  preserved  a  portion  of  the 
surrounding  picture,  which  by  lines  or  color  or  both,  will  read¬ 
ily  give  the  clue  to  where  it  belongs. 

This  test,  again,  can  easily  be  made  out  of  three-ply  scroll- 
saw  wood.  The  picture  is  that  of  a  school  room  with  eight 
scholars  and  a  teacher,  and  is  taken  from  that  entertaining 
child’s  book,  ‘Jingleman  Jack,  A  Book  of  Occupations,’  by 


14  WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 

O’Dea  and  Kennedy^  It  should  be  noted  in  this,  as  in  Test 
I,  that  the  pieces  are  not  cut  out,  as  in  the  ordinary  picture 
puzzle,  on  arbitrary  lines,  but  represent  actual  parts,  such  as 
a  head  or  an  arm,  in  this  case  with  a  little  piece  of  the  sur¬ 
rounding  picture.  All  this  is  clearly  indicated  in  Fig.  4. 

The  test  is  presented  to  the  subject  with  the  parts  well 
mixed  up,  as  in  the  illustration,  and  the  individual  is  told  that 
here  is  the  picture  of  a  school,  with  heads  and  arms  and  things 
cut  out  and  you  want  to  see  how  quickly  and  correctly  he 
can  put  them  together.  He  is  told  to  pick  up  one  piece  at  a 
time,  look  at  it  carefully,  and  then  put  it  in  place,  and  that 
if  a  wrong  place  is  tried,  it  will  be  counted  an  error. 

Our  normal  12  year  old  children  generally  do  this  test  in 
from  one  to  two  minutes  and  make  from  none  to  eight  errors. 
The  number  of  errors  usually  made  by  an  individual  poor  in 
general  ability  is  quite  astonishing  in  the  light  of  the  apparent 
easiness  of  the  task.  Time  is  here  again  comparatively  an 
unimportant  factor.  Of  undoubted  great  singificance  are 
the  errors  scored  under  heading  three. 

Scoring.  I.  Time. 

2.  Number  of  errors. 

3.  Number  of  errors  of  impossible  situations; 

for  example,  effort  to  put  piece  in  upside 
down. 

The  record  of  case  574  is: 

1.  T50" 

2.  5 

3-  o 

Test  III.  Construction  Puzzle  (A). 

The  first  sketch  of  this  test  was  given  us  by  Professor  F. 
N.  Freeman.  We,  however,  added  the  idea  of  making  the 
pieces  partially  interchangeable.  The  significance  of  the 
results  obtained  largely  hinges  upon  this  interchangeableness. 


^Published  by  Saalfield  Publishing  Co.  Akron,  Ohio,  1901. 


Fig.  4 


l-v*" 


Kig.  5 


l> 


d 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


IS 

This  test  brings  out  perception  of  relationships  of  form  and 
also  the  individual’s  method  of  mental  procedure  for  the 
given  task — particularly  his  ability  to  profit  by  the  experience 
of  repeated  trials,  in  contradistinction  to  the  peculiar  repe¬ 
tition  of  impossibilities  characteristic  of  the  subnormal  and 
feeble-minded  groups. 

The  test  is  readily  and  serviceably  made  of  scroll-saw  wood. 
The  inside  measurements  of  the  empty  rectangle  are  4x3 
inches.  The  subject  is  offered  the  test  with  the  separate 
pieces  irregularly  disposed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5  a,  and  is  told 
that  the  space  can  be  exactly  filled  up  if  they  are  put  in  correctly. 

It  would  seem  quite  apparent  that  for  estimating  mental 
ability  the  method  pursued  in  this  task  is  of  much  greater 
value  than  the  actual  time.  Probably  all  would  acknowledge 
that  a  trial  method,  where  the  subject  proceeds  intelligently 
from  one  apparent  possibility  to  another,  even  though  a 
relatively  long  time  is  consumed,  will  not  necessarily  indicate 
lack  of  native  ability.  We  find  that  most  of  our  twelve 
year  old  children  do  this  puzzle  in  time  ranging  from  12 
seconds  to  2  minutes. 

Scoring  is  simplified  by  the  following  procedure:  Each 
piece  put  in  the  frame  and  left  there  is  easily  recognizable 
as  belonging  under  one  or  more  of  the  heads  described  below 
under  2,  3,  and  4  and  a  check  mark  may  be  placed  in  an 
appropriate  column. 

1.  Time.  (Failure  recorded  as  in  Test  I.) 

2.  Number  of  moves  made.  (Five  being  the  least  num¬ 
ber  in  which  the  task  can  be  accomplished.) 

3.  Number  of  moves  of  obvious  impossibilities,  i.  e., 
cases  in  which  a  piece  is  left  in  an  evidently  impossible  situ¬ 
ation,  that  is,  where  it  leaves  a  space  obviously  unfitted  to 
any  of  the  remaining  pieces, — for  example,  the  narrower 
spaces  shown  in  Figs.  6  a  and  6  b. 

4.  Repetition  of  such  obvious  impossibilities. 

Record  of  Case  574  is; 

1.  19" 

2. -  7 
3-  o 
4.  o 


l6  WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 

Test  IV.  Construction  Puzzle  (B) 

This  test  is  the  design  of  Dr.  Grace  M.  Fernald,  following 
the  suggestion  of  Dr.  W.  F.  Dearborn.  Its  purpose  is  to  • 
show  the  individual’s  perception  of  relationships  of  form  and 
also  to  bring  out  his  power  to  plan  a  bit  of  work,  that  is  to 
say,  his  ability  to  see  the  possibility  or  impossibility  of  situ¬ 
ations  before  they  are  actually  attempted.  The  ability  to 
profit  by  the  experiences  of  trial  and  success  or  failure  is  so 
important,  that  for  its  estimation  it  seemed  distinctly  worth 
while  adding  a  somewhat  harder  task  of  the  type  of  Test  III. 
When  the  performance  has  been  remarkably  good  in  Test  III. 
we  have  occasionally  felt  sure  that  it  was  partly  due  to  chance 
and  so  wished  to  carry  the  investigation  further  on  this  point. 

The  pattern  is  easily  cut  out  of  scroll-saw  wood,  but  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  parts  be  exactly  made  so  that 
they  are  interchangeable  throughout.  Otherwise  the  signifi¬ 
cance  of  the  results  will  be  lost.  The  standard  width  of  all 
the  spaces  in  the  pattern  is  one  and  three-eighths  inches.  The 
spaces  which  have  only  one  rounded  end  are  five  inches  long 
and  the  rectangle  is  two  inches  long.  From  these  dimensions 
and  the  pattern  as  shown  in  Fig.  7  the  design  can  be  readily 
drawn. 

The  test  is  presented  to  the  subject  with  the  pieces  well 
mixed  up  as  in  the  illustration.  He  is  told  that  if  the  pieces 
are  put  in  correctly  they  will  exactly  fill  all  the  spaces  and  he 
is  to  see  how  quickly  he  can  put  them  in  their  proper  places. 

In  this  test,  again,  it  seems  to  us  that  a  trial  and  success 
method  can  not  be  regarded  as  at  all  derogatory  to  native 
ability,  but  it  does  seem  clear  that  in  such  a  procedure  the 
constantly  getting  of  one’s  self  back  into  old  impossible  situ¬ 
ations  is,  on  the  contrary,  evidence  of  poor  ability.  The 
shrewdest  method  pursued  is  to  eliminate  the  small  pieces 
which  can  only  fill  up  certain  definite  spaces.  Some  of  our 
subjects  deliberately  do  this.  A  common  result  of  faulty 
placing  of  the  pieces  is  shown  in  Fig.  8.  Time,  again,  in  this 
test  is  hardly  to  be  considered  so  important  as  estimation  of 
the  method  pursued.  Most  of  our  twelve  year  old  children 
are  successful  in  from  one  to  three  minutes. 


Fig. 


/ 


Fig.  8 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


17 


Scoring',  A  very  ingenious  method  of  recording  the  actual 
number  of  moves  and  their  significance  has  been  devised  by 
Dr.  Mary  H.  S.  Hayes.  For  this  purpose  the  separate  pieces 
are  designated  by  numbers,  which,  since  they  come  in  order 
downwards,  are  easily  remembered.  With  a  rough  tracing 
of  the  empty  spaces  an  accurate  and  self-explanatory  score 
sheet  may  be  very  easily  filled  in.  The  small  exponent  by 
the  side  of  the  piece-number  shows  the  serial  order  of  the 
move  made.  A  line  drawn  through  a  piece-number  means 
that  it  was  removed  and  the  exponent  at  the  end  of  the  line 
shows  the  number  of  the  move.  The  method  is  shown  in 
Fig.  9. 


"P\tci  rolt  Scoxit/fi  'tX'PK/p,  scc^e  &HECT 


O  ID 

I  3  I  iHD 

□ 

(  ^  1  D 


/  V  i  g) 

r  10' 


Fig.  9 


The  points  for  final  record  have  not  yet  been  determined 
by  us  because  this  improved  method  of  graphic  scoring  we 
have  only  recently  adopted.  Prior  to  that  we  registered 
time  and  made  a  rough  estimation  of  the  intelligence  of  the 
procedure.  ‘  In  a  later  contribution  on  the  standardization 
of  the  tests  we  hope  this  will  be  covered.  For  typical, graphic 
record  see  Fig.  9. 

Record  of  Case  574  is; 

Time;  55"  Moves;  19. 


1 8  WILLIAM  IIEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 

Test  V.  Puzzle  Box 

The  development  of  this  test  resulted  from  suggestions 
received  from  a  number  of  sources — the  animal  experimenters, 
and  Thorndike,  Woodworth  and  others.  The  box  at  present 
in  use  is  one  somewhat  modified  from  the  general  design  of 
Dr.  Grace  M.  Fernald,  whose  original  plan  was  of  a  box  fas¬ 
tened  by  a  hasp,  staple  and  bolt  which  could  be  opened  only 
by  following  a  definite  sequence  of  five  or  six  steps.  These 
steps  consisted  of  the  manipulation  or  removal  of  fastenings 
both  outside  and  inside  the  box,  the  latter  being  accomplished 
by  means  of  some  tool  which  could  be  thrust  for  that  purpose 
through  certain  openings — the  whole  procedure  to  be  learned 
and  studied  by  direct  observation.  The  inside  could  be 
seen  through  a  glass  cover.  Later  modifications  have  not 
affected  the  general  idea,  but  have  changed  the  procedure 
and  made  the  box  much  stronger  and  more  stable  as  a  work¬ 
ing  test.  Mr.  Joseph  W.  Hayes  has  most  kindly  contributed 
these  improvements. 

The  purpose  of  this  test  is  obvious.  It  may  bring  out  abil¬ 
ities  or  defects  in  manipulative  powers,  in  the  ability  to  ana¬ 
lyze  a  slightly  complicated  physical  situation,  in  powers  of 
attention  and  continuity  of  effort. 

The  description  of  this  box  is  best  made  with  reference  to 
the  illustration.  Fig.  lO,  and  to  letters  which  may  serve  to 
designate  the  sequence  of  steps  in  the  opening  of  the  box. 
A  curved  bolt-hook  {A)  on  the  front  side  of  the  box  is  held 
in  place  by  a  ring  {B)  to  which  is  attached  a  blue  string  run¬ 
ning  through  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  box  and  up  through 
another  ring  (£)  and  ending  in  a  ring  (C)  which  goes  over  a 
perpendicular  arm  of  a  post  {D).  Directly  opposite  to  this 
is  a  hole  in  the  front  side  of  the  box  for  manipulation  by  the 
long  button  hook,  which  is  used  as  a  tool.  This  blue  string 
is  held  taut  by  the  ring  (£)  which  is  in  turn  attached  by  an 
orange  colored  string  to  a  ring  (F),  which  is  seen  fitting  over 
a  post  (G).  A  cross  piece  prevents  this  ring  from  slipping 
down  too  far.  Opposite  to  this  post  there  is  a  hole  in  the 
back  side  of  the  box.  The  last  mentioned  ring  (F)  is  held  in 


I  k;,  io 


4 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


19 


place  by  a  green  string,  which  passes  through  a  hole  in  the 
floor  of  the  box,  which  may  be  seen  near  the  post  (G).  This 
green  string  now  passes  under  the  box  and  ends  in  a  ring  {H) 
— not  to  be  seen  in  the  illustration — which  is  held  in  place 
by  having  the  short  arm  of  the  staple  (7),  when  released  from 
the  box,  passed  through  it.  The  staple  (7)  is  held  tight  by  a 
red  string  attached  to  one  arm  which  ends  in  the  ring  (/). 
This  ring  slips  over  a  post  {K)  which  is  fastened  to  the  side 
of  the  box.  The  hole  for  the  manipulation  of  this  last  ring  is 
in  the  floor  of  the  box  directly  below  the  head  of  the  last 
mentioned  post. 

The  color  of  the  strings  is,  of  course,  arbitrary  and  is  made 
different  in  order  to  facilitate  the  tracing  of  the  sequence  of 
events  necessary  in  opening  the  box.  One  removes  first  the 
ring  over  the  post  {K)  and  pulls  out  the  staple  from  its  holes 
in  the  back  of  the  box,  releasing  the  attached  ring.  Next 
the  ring  over  the  post  (G)  is  lifted  off,  which  loosens  the  short 
orange  colored  string  so  that  the  ring  on  the  arm  of  post(7)) 
can  be  readily  removed.  This  then  so  loosens  the  blue  string 
that  the  final  ring  can  be  pushed  over  the  curved  arm  of  the 
bolt-hook  and  the  latter  may  be  withdrawn,  the  hasp  lifted 
and  the  box  opened. 

The  box  itself  must  be  strongly  made.  The  bolt-hook,  posts 
and  staple  may  be  made  of  aluminum  and  the  posts  are 
securely  held  in  place.  The  procedure  in  giving  this  test  is 
comparatively  simple.  The  subject  is  told  that  he  should 
look  the  box  over  thoroughly  before  beginning  and  that  he 
can  use  the  button  hook.  No  parts  must  be  cut  or  de¬ 
stroyed.  He  should  be  told  all  this  and  also  that  if  he  does 
the  right  things  in  the  right  order  the  box  may  easily  be 
opened.  Finally  before  putting  it  in  his  hands,  one  should 
say,  “Now  see  how  quickly  you  can  get  it  open.” 

It  is  obvious  that  the  general  results  obtained  from  this 
test  must  vary  greatly,  but  there  seem  to  be  three  main  types 
of  approach  to  the  problem;  first,  random  trials;  second, 
intelligent  profiting  by  the  experiences  of  trials  and  successes 
or  failures;  third,  conscious  analysis  of  the  puzzle  as  a  whole 
with  recognition  of  the  relation  of  the  parts.  Of  course,  on 


20 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


account  of  the  differences  in  strength  and  manipulative  power 
there  would,  other  things  being  equal,  be  considerable  differ¬ 
ence  in  the  times  taken  by  the  subjects.  Indeed,  altogether 
it  has  seemed  to  us  that  the  method  employed  by  the  subject 
is  of  more  significance  than  the  time.  Most  of  our  twelve 
year  old  subjects  have  opened  the  box  in  from  one  and  a 
half  to  nine  minutes,  but  a  certain  number  have  finally  failed. 

Scoring',  i.  Time.  (If  the  problem  is  not  solved  at  the 
end  of  15  minutes,  it  is  considered  a  failure  and  re¬ 
corded  ‘F’,  or  in  cases  where  the  child  gives  up  and 
can  not  be  induced  to  continue  before  that  time,  the 
letter  ‘F’  is  recorded  with  the  time.) 

2.  Attitude  of  subject. 

(a)  Interested  and  making  an  effort  to  solve  the 
problem. 

(b)  Helpless  turning  around  of  the  box  and  pro¬ 
testing  he  can’t  do  it. 

3.  Method  of  procedure. 

(a)  Point  of  attack — 

(b)  Step  I,  Removing  ring  J  from  post  K — 
time  spent  in  doing  it. 

(c)  Step  2.  Pulling  out  staple  I  and  releasing 
ring  H — time  spent  in  doing  it. 

(d)  Step  3.  Removing  ring  F  from  post  G — 
time  spent  in  doing  it. 

(e)  Step  4.  Removing  ring  C  from  arm  of  post  D — 
time  spent  in  doing  it. 

(f)  Step  5.  Removing  ring  B  from  hook  A — 
time  spent  in  doing  it. 

(g)  Step  6.  Removing  hook  A  and  opening  box — 
time  spent  in  doing  it. 

(h)  Error  i.  Tugging  at  bolt-hook  A  out  of  order 
— time  spent  in  doing  it. 

(i)  Error  2.  Trying  to  remove  ring  B  out  of  order. 
Time  spent  in  doing  it. 

(j)  Error  3.  Trying  to  remove  ring  C  out  of  order. 
Time  spent  in  doing  it. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


21 


(k)  Error  4.  Trying  to  remove  ring  F  out  of  order. 
Time  spent  in  doing  it. 

(l)  Error  5.  Trying  to  pull  out  staple  I  out  of 
order.  Time  spent  in  doing  it. 

Additional  errors,  such  as  tugging  at  the  strings,  are 
noted  in  the  record. 

Record  of  Case  574  is; 

1.  T25" 

2.  (a)  Yes. 

(b)  - 

3.  Point  of  attack  Ring  J 

Step  I.  10" 

Step  2.  5" 

Step  3.  15" 

Step  4.  2" 

Step  5.  5" 

Step  6.  5" 

Record  of  Case  573,  (girl,  17  years  old,)  is; 

1.  4' 6" 

2.  (a)  Poor  interest. 

(b)_  - 

3.  Point  of  attack  Ring  F 

Error  3.  15" 

Error  2.  10" 

Error  3.  5" 

Step  I.  15" 

Step  2.  10" 

Error  2.  40" 

Step  3.  20" 

Step  4.  20" 

Steps.  15" 

Step  6.  5" 

Test  VI.  ‘Aussage’ — Testimony  from  a  Picture 

This  is  our  adaptation  of  one  of  the  tests  of  those  German 
psychologists,  particularly  Wilhelm  Stern,  who  have  done  so 


22 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


much  to  develop  a  most  important  line  of  research  on  the 
individual’s  ability  to  give  accurate  testimony. 

The  purpose  of  this  test  in  our  hands  is  to  discover  the  power 
of  the  subject  to  report  faithfully  what  he  has  seen.  We 
find  that  incidentally  we  may  sometimes  ascertain  also  certain 
facts  that  throw  light  not  only  upon  sense  perceptions  and 
recall,  but  upon  other  mental  characteristics  which  might 
possibly  have  to  do  with  the  moral  make-up  of  the  individual. 
These  are  suggestibility,  imaginativeness,  powers  of  dramati¬ 
zation,  unswerving  honesty  of  report  and  so  on. 

The  only  picture  thoroughly  adapted  to  our  needs  that  we 
could  find  after  long  search  was  of  a  butcher  shop.  Fig.  ii. 
This  likewise  was  taken  from  “  Jingleman  Jack”*.  Every 
child  whom  we  have  seen  has  been  familiar  with  such  a  shop 
and  most  of  the  objects  depicted  in  the  picture. 

The  method  we  pursue  is  to  tell  the  subject  that  we  have 
here  a  picture  of  a  butcher  shop,  and  we  are  going  to  show  it 
to  him  for  a  short  time.  In  that  time  he  must  study  it 
thoroughly.  After  that  he  must  tell  us  all  he  has  seen  and 
then  we  will  ask  him  all  sorts  of  questions  about  it,  about 
things  that  were  perhaps  there  and  perhaps  were  not  there. 
Then  we  place  the  picture  in  his  hands  so  that  a  good  light 
falls  upon  it.  He  is  given  from  ten  to  fifteen  seconds  to  look 
at  it,  and  then,  quickly  taking  it  away,  we  ask  him  for  his 
own  acount  of  what  he  saw.  This  is  written  down  almost 
verbatim.  After  he  is  through  with  his  free  recital,  we  carry 
on  a  kind  of  cross  examination,  which  is  calculated  to  bring 
out  details  of  the  picture  which  he  may  have  forgotten,  as 
well  as  his  suggestibility.  During  the  course  of  this  cross 
examination,  we  definitely  ask  about  unmentioned  details 
of  objects  and  actions,  about  the  colors  of  the  butcher’s 
shirt  and  hat,  of  the  dog  and  of  the  woman’s  dress.  To 
bring  out  his  possible  suggestibility  we  get  him  to  name  all 
that  he  saw  hanging  on  the  side  wall  and  then,  after  asking 
another  question  or  two,  inquire  if  he  saw  the  bunch  of  ba¬ 
nanas.  Bananas  are  not  in  the  picture,  neither  are  the  elec- 


*Vide  Test  II. 


1' IG  11 


<9 


1 


w. 


-  ♦ 


L"*. 


I 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


23 


trie  light,  nor  the  box  for  scraps,  nor  meat  visible  in  the  ice¬ 
box,  nor  saw-dust  on  the  floor,  all  of  which  we  inquire  for 
while  we  are  asking  for  the  other  things  which  are  really 
there.  The  answers  are  all  written  down  as  memoranda 
by  the  investigator. 

Often  this  test  brings  out  very  interesting  results  with 
regard  to  the  power  of  recall  and  the  adventitious  use  of  the 
imagination,  with  regard  to  suggestibility,  veracity,  and, 
rarely,  power  of  dramatization.  Occasionally  it  has  seemed 
that  the  results  obtained  have  had  some  correlation  with  the 
delinquency,  as  in  the  case  of  extreme  mendaciousness. 
Subjects  are  nearly  always  interested  in  this  test.  The  results 
obtained  differ  extremely,  but  sometimes  we  seem  to  have 
very  definite  types  of  response.  There  is  the  down-right 
honest  response  from  the  subject  who  is  sure  that  he  recalls 
nothing  but  what  was  there  and  who  if  he  is  not  certain  that 
he  has  seen  a  thing  will  say  so.  There  is  the  shrewd  response 
given  by  a  subject  who  seems  to  calculate  on  the  probability 
of  some  of  the  suggested  objects,  saying,  as  it  were  to  himself, 
‘I’ll  tell  them  it’s  there  because  they  ask  for  it  and  it  may 
really  be  there.  ’  Then  there  is  the  loquacious  lying  response 
offered  by  the  subnormal  individual  who  apperceives  very 
little  indeed  of  what  there  is  in  the  picture.  As  a  contrast,  we 
find  the  subject  who  visualizes  the  whole  panorama  of  events 
and  with  word  and  gesture  vividly  dramatizes  the  situation. 
We  know  that  we  are  justified  in  trying  to  estimate  some 
phases  of  suggestibility  in  this  test,  because  of  the  many 
individuals  even  of  twelve  years  old  or  less  who  are  quite 
sure  that  the  objects  suggested  to  them  are  not  present  in 
the  picture.  The  significance  of  the  accepted  suggestion  or 
of  the  testimony  in  general  may  be  very  complex,  but  when 
one  notes  the  sturdy  responses  often  obtained  from  children 
who  are  both  bright  and  honest,  one  must  believe  that  the 
differences  between  these  results  and  the  markedly  inferior 
reports  may  mean  a  good  deal. 

Scoring',  From  the  memoranda  jotted  down  while  the 
examination  is  in  progress,  the  following  points  seem  worth 
scoring. 


24 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


1.  Number  of  details. 

(a)  obtained  by  free  recital. 

(b)  imagined  details. 

(c)  correct  details  obtained  by  questioning. 

(d)  erroneous  details. 

(e)  details  of  color,  [  correct. 

\  incorrect. 

2.  Mode  of  response. 

(a)  Enumerative. 

(b)  Functional.  In  cases  where  the  re¬ 
sponse  is  partly  of  one  kind  and  partly  of 
another,  it  is  recorded  by  means  of  a  fraction 
— for  example,  (a)  |,  (b)  f. 

3.  Suggestibility. 

(a)  Number  of  probable  suggestions  accepted. 

(b)  Number  of  improbable  suggestions  ac¬ 
cepted. 

Record  of  Case  560  is; 

“Saw  butcher  with  sausages  in  hand  and  some  lying  on 
counter  to  be  wrapped  up  and  chopper  with  cleaver.  Meat 
hanging;  legs  of  beef.  Woman  had  basket,  girl  had  some¬ 
thing — bread.  Dog  was  reaching  up  sniffing  at  sausage. 
Other  meat  besides.  Don’t  know  any  more.” 

Cross  exam. — Butcher  is  spry-looking  man,  had  smile. 
Not  large  man,  thin  looking,  apron  on,  strap  went  over  his 
shoulders  and  around  him,  had  lots  of  hair,  no  cap.  Sau¬ 
sages  in  one  hand,  knife  in  the  other.  Scales  weren’t  in 
there.  Ice  box — no.  Don’t  know  meat  on  side  wall.  Think 
she  had  pocket  book  in  other  hand.  Only  one  knife  seen. 

Color — shirt — not  noticed.  Dress — sort  of  brown.  Dog 
— white,  had  spots  on  him.  Butcher’s  hair — brown. 

Suggestibility — o. 

Non-suggestibility.  Bunch  of  bananas.  Box  for  scraps. 
Meat  in  ice  box.  (Didn’t  see  ice  box.)  No  electric  light. 
Didn’t  see  sawdust. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


25 


1.  (a)  14 

(b)  2 

(c)  7 

(d)  5 

(e)  correct  i 
incorrect  2. 

2.  (a)  I 

(b)  I 
3-  (a)  o 

(b)  o 

Test  VII.  Visual  Memory  of  Geometric  Figures 

This  is  a  well  known  Binet  test  and  forms  one  of  the  sim¬ 
plest  of  our  series.  It  is  usually  denominated  a  visual  mem¬ 
ory  test,  but  particularly  in  the  second  figure  the  observer 
can  often  easily  determine  that  the  motor  method  of  learning 
and  recall  is  partly  used. 

The  designs  as  shown  in  Fig.  12  are  drawn  in  heavy  black 
lines  and  the  dimensions  of  the  large  rectangle  are  about 


□ 


Fig.  12 


3x2  inches.  The  total  length  of  the  other  design  is  3  inches, 
width  I  inch. 

The  subject  is  told  that  we  are  going  to  show  him  a  figure 
for  a  little  while  and  we  want  him  to  draw  something  that 
looks  like  it.  We  tell  him  he  need  not  take  much  time  to 
draw  it  because  we  do  not  care  if  it  is  not  drawn  well.  We 
simply  want  him  to  show  us  what  it  looks  like.  The  rect¬ 
angular  design  is  shown  for  five  seconds,  is  withdrawn  and 
the  child  told  to  draw  it.  If  there  is  any  question,  as  there 
sometimes  is,  as  to  whether  he  means  the  inner  figure  to  be 


26 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


represented  as  in  the  center  of  the  large  figure  or  not,  he  is 
asked  to  tell  its  relative  position.  If  the  figures  are  extremely 
poorly  drawn,  he  may  be  asked  to  repeat  after  another  look 
at  the  model.  The  second  figure  is  exposed  for  five  seconds 
in  the  same  way. 

The  commonest  error  in  reproducing  the  first  figure  is  due 
to  the  lack  of  perception  that  the  second  rectangle  is  not  in 
the  middle  of  the  first.  The  commonest  error  in  the  second 
figure  is  due  to  the  lack  of  symmetrical  reproduction  of  the 
parts.  In  the  attempt  to  learn  this  last  figure  it  may  be  often 
observed  that  the  subject's  eyes  follow  the  lines  and  his  fingers 
trace  them  in  the  air.  The  first  figure  is  reproduced  correctly 
by  most  of  our  twelve  year  olds,  but  a  less  number  are  suc¬ 
cessful  with  the  second. 

Scoring’,  the  result  of  the  test  itself  is  its  own  record. 
Scoring  points  are  as  follows  for  the  two  designs  (a)  and  (b) : 

(a)  I.  Correct,  viz.,  result  is  recognizable  as  in¬ 

tended  for  a  representation  of  the  model. 

2.  Correct  except  for  error  in  placing  small 
figure  in  center. 

3.  Failure,  viz.,  result  not  recognizable  as 
representation  of  the  model. 

(b)  I.  Correct,  viz.,  result  is  recognizable  as  in¬ 

tended  for  a  representation  of  the  model. 

2.  Correct  except  for  lack  of  symmetry. 

3.  Failure,  viz.,  result  not  recognizable  as 
representation  of  the  model. 

The  record  of  Case  574  is : 

(a)  I.  Yes. 

2.  — 

3-  — 

(b)  I.  Yes. 

2.  — 

3-  — 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


27 


Test  VIII.  Learning  Test — Arbitrary  Associations 

Our  method  in  this  test  is  a  variation  on  suggestions  offered 
by  Whipple,  Dearborn,  MacMillan  and  Bruner,  all  of  whom 
have  had  experience  with  somewhat  similar  tests. 

The  purpose  in  this  is  to  get  a  gauge  of  the  powers  of  atten¬ 
tion  and  the  ability  of  'the  subject  to  establish  a  compara¬ 
tively  easy  set  of  associations. 

=  \±%0  Q. 

O  0  d 

-h  =  X 

L  :>  c 

X  D  = 

L  A 

+  0  c 

A  X  D 

o  •=  c 

L  -f  D 


"b  .O  A 
D  OX  C 
==  D  L 

Fig.  13 


Nine  clearly  made  symbols  with  numbers  attached  are 
presented  together  with  27  similar,  but  unnumbered  symbols, 
three  of  each  kind.  These  blank  symbols  are  given  for  the 


28 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


subject  to  fill  in  as  part  of  the  learning  process.  On  a  portion 
of  the  sheet,  which  is  turned  under  until  it  is  used,  there  are 
placed  ten  unnumbered  symbols,  one  being  repeated  in  order 
to  guage  the  intelligence  of  reaction  to  that  particular  phe¬ 
nomenon.  The  make-up  of  the  whole  pattern  can  be  plainly 
seen  in  Fig.  13.  The  subject  is  asked  to  fill  in  the  numbers  of 
the  27  practice  symbols  and  after  he  has  done  this,  he  is  told 
to  study  well  the  top  line  until  he  thinks  he  knows  it.  Then 
the  sheet  is  turned  over  and  the  subject  is  told  to  fill  in  the 
numbers  from  memory. 

We  find  plenty  of  children  even  of  eight  and  ten  years 
quite  able  to  do  this  task  without  errors.  Experience  with 
this  sort  of  test  indicates  that  it  is  done  relatively  more  read¬ 
ily  by  the  child  type  of  mind  than  by  the  adult  type. 


Scoring: 

2. 

3. 

4- 

5. 


I.  Number  of  errors  or  omissions  in  graphic 
learning. 

Number  of  errors  or  omissions  in  reproducing. 
Placing  the  same  number  in  different  figures  in 
the  reproduction,  for  example,  the  number  4  in 
both  the  triangle  and  the  square. 

Placing  different  numbers  in  the  repeated  figure 
in  the  reproduction. 

Introducing  in  the  reproduction  a  number  not 
given,  for  instance,  10. 


The  record  of  Case  574  is 
I.  o 


o 

No 

No 

No 


Test  IX.  Cross  Line  Test  (A) 

This  test  and  Test  X  were  first  suggested  for  our  use  by 
Dr.  D.  P.  MacMillan.  We  later  found  that  they  had  the 
historically  interesting  use  which  is  described  in  Test  XI. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


29 


These  three  tests  are  especially  noteworthy  and  valuable 
because  their  correct  performance  seems  to  demand  mental 
powers  which  appear  strongest  in  the  normal  adult  mind  and 
which  are  weakest  in  mentality  of  the  child  type.  The  proc¬ 
ess  involved  is  certainly  complex.  It  appears  to  call  for  the 
power  of  mental  representation  of  the  model,  together  with 
the  ability  to  analyze  out  its  parts  and  recall  by  visual  mem¬ 
ory  and,  perhaps,  by  a  definite  logical  process  the  numbers 
corresponding  to  the  parts.  This  one  is  simplest  of  the  three. 

The  procedure  we  have  found  most  useful  in  giving  the 
test  is  as  follows: — 


A  V  >  < 

Fig.  14 


The  cross  lines  represented  in  Fig.  14  are  drawn  on  a  good 
sized  sheet  of  paper  in  front  of  the  subject,  the  investigator, 
at  the  same  time,  calling  his  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
whole  figure  is  made  up  of  parts  or  compartments.  Then 
the  figures  are  placed  in  the  spaces,  emphasis  being  laid  upon 
the  order  in  which  the  numbers  are  placed  with  regard  to 
the  figure.  This  having  been  done  while  the  subject  has  had 
a  good  chance  to  look  at  the  model,  it  is  turned  over  and  the 
different  angles  representing  the  different  spaces  of  the  main 
figure  are  drawn  one  at  a  time  and  not  in  regular  order.  As 
each  part  is  drawn  the  subject  is  to  tell  what  number  belongs 
in  it  before  the  next  part  is  drawn.  If  there  are  any  mistakes, 


30 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


he  is  allowed  to  draw  and  number  the  whole  figure  for  him¬ 
self  and  try  again  and  so  on  until,  if  necessary,  three  reproduc¬ 
tions  have  been  made.  He  is  shown  any  errors  in  his  own 
drawing.  Twelve  year  old  children  rarely  fail  in  this  test  which 
serves  substantially  as  a  practice  test  for  X,  B. 

Scoring',  The  record  sheets  themselves  are,  of  course, 
direct  evidence  of  the  work  done,  but  for  a  final  score  the 
following  points  are  to  be  checked  if  positive. 

1.  Correct  in  first  reproduction.  (Where  errors  are  made 
but  corrected  without  assistance  indicate  by  c.) 

2.  Some  wrong  in  first  reproduction,  but  these  errors 
explained  by  arrangement  of  numbers  as  subject  remembered 
them. 

3.  Correct  after  first  drawing  by  self,  that  is  in  second 
reproduction. 

4.  Correct  after  second  drawing  by  self,  that  is  in  third 
reproduction. 

5.  Errors  made  in  first  reproduction. 

6.  Errors  made  in  second  reproduction. 

7.  Errors  made  in  third  reproduction. 

8.  Failure.  The  reproduction  where  it  occurred  being 
indicated  by  an  exponent. 

9.  Failure.  Inability  to  comprehend  the  idea  after  careful 
explanation  and  several  illustrations. 

10.  Numbers  incorrectly  arranged  in  own  drawing  and 
corrected  for  him.  Which  drawing  indicated  by  an  exponent. 

11.  Repetition  of  the  same  number  in  different  situations. 

12.  Addition  of  a  number  not  in  the  original  drawing. 

13.  Inability  to  draw  the  figure  correctly  from  memory. 

Record  of  Case  574  is: 

I.  Yes. 

Test  X.  Cross  Line  Test  (B) 

The  general  idea  of  this  test  will  be  readily  understood  by 
reading  what  we  have  said  under  Test  IX.  The  main  pur¬ 
pose  is  the  same,  but  the  results  obtained  have  been  found 
considerably  more  interesting  and  instructive  on  account  of 
the  greater  complexity  of  the  figure. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


31 


The  procedure  in  giving  this  test  has  only  slight  variations 
from  the  preceding  one.  After  the  explanation  is  made  and 
the  numbers  filled  in  as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  one  element  of  the 
large  figure  is  drawn,  (always  the  seventh  space,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration)  and  the  subject  is  asked,  “What  number 
goes  into  it?”  This  is  to  make  sure  that  the  subject  under¬ 
stands  the  problem.  Having  been  given  a  good  chance  to 
look  at  the  model  for  a  moment  and  emphasis  having  been 
placed  on  the  order  in  which  the  numbers  are  written  in  the 


Iz 


/ 

7 

s 

g 

3 

'6 

□  L  n  "1  J 

c  r  u  □  n 

Fig.  is 


spaces  of  the  main  figure,  the  model  is  turned  over  out  of 
sight  and  the  elements  are  drawn  one  by  one,  but  not  in 
numerical  order,  as  the  subject  tells  what  number  belongs  in 
each.  We  are  now  trying  to  bring  in  the  factor  of  en¬ 
couragement  by  offering  the  easier  elements  first,  namely, 
the  fifth  followed  by  the  seventh,  and  then  proceeding  at 
random.  If  there  is  a  failure,  a  chance  for  reproduction  and 
retrial  is  given  as  in  the  previous  test.  As  many  retrials 
as  desirable,  may  be  made. 

On  account  of  the  readily  ascertained  differences  in  per¬ 
formance  between  bright  subjects  and  dull  subjects,  we  have 
come  to  regard  the  test  as  extremely  valuable.  About  half 
of  our  twelve  year  old  children  have  so  far  done  this  correctly 
on  first  trial. 


32 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


Scoring:  Again,  on  this,  the  original  record  is  its  own 
evidence  of  the  performance,  but  for  final  registration  the 
following  points  may  be  checked : 

1.  Correct  in  first  reproduction.  (Where  errors  are  made 
but  corrected  without  assistance  indicate  by  c.) 

2.  Some  wrong,  in  first  reproduction,  but  these  errors 
explained  by  arrangement  of  numbers  as  subject  remembered 
them. 

3.  Correct  after  first  drawing  by  self,  that  is  in  second 
reproduction. 

4.  Correct  after  second  drawing  by  self,  that  is  in  third 
reproduction. 

5.  Correct  after  third  drawing  by  self,  that  is  in  fourth 
reproduction. 

6.  Two  numbers  interchanged  in  first  reproduction. 

7.  Several  wrong  in  first  reproduction.  (Error  in  center 
square  designated  by  c.) 

8.  Two  numbers  interchanged  in  second  reproduction. 

9.  Several  wrong  in  second  reproduction.  (Error  in  center 
square  designated  by  c.) 

10.  Two  numbers  interchanged  in  third  reproduction. 

11.  Several  wrong  in  third  reproduction.  (Error  in  center 
square  designated  by  c.) 

12.  Two  numbers  interchanged  in  fourth  reproduction. 

13.  Several  wrong  in  fourth  reproduction.  (Error  in  center 
square  designated  by  c.) 

14.  Failure.  The  reproduction  where  it  occurred  being 
indicated  by  an  exponent. 

15.  Failure.  Inability  to  comprehend  the  idea  after  care¬ 
ful  explanation  and  several  illustrations. 

16.  Numbers  incorrectly  arranged  in  own  drawing  and  cor¬ 
rected  for  him.  (Which  drawing  indicated  by  an  exponent.) 

17.  Repetition  of  the  same  number  in  different  situations. 

18.  Addition  of  a  number  not  in  the  original  drawing. 

19.  Inability  to  draw  the  figure  correctly  from  memory. 

Record  of  case  574  is: 

I.  Yes  (c)  —  prompt. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


33 


Test  XL  Code  Test 

A  code  that  was  used  for  secret  correspondence  during  the 
civil  war  was  communicated  to  us  indirectly  from  an  old 
army  officer.  It  at  once  appeared  to  be  the  parent  of  the 
two  foregoing  tests,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  accompanying 
illustration,  Fig.  i6.  The  code  was  quickly  appreciated  by 
us  as  a  worthy  member  of  our  series.  While  its  elementary 
parts  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  foregoing  two  tests,  the 
task  of  working  up  a  code  sentence  without  copy  introduces 


Ccrrr^ 

Ifn  u  D 


E  A  r  1  3  A 


FiG.!ii6 


a  necessity  for  close  attention  and  steadiness  of  purpose  which 
is  not  equalled  in  any  of  our  other  work.  In  this  test  no 
object  of  interest  is  held  in  the  hands,  there  is  nothing  to 
look  at  that  bears  on  the  task  and  the  investigator  is  not  offer¬ 
ing  the  same  stimulus  to  attention  which  obtains  in  the  giving 
’of  the  previous  two  tests.  The  scheme  of  the  test  is  easily 
understood,  especially  if  the  other  two  tests  have  been  pre¬ 
viously  given.  The  second  of  each  of  the  two  main  figures 
is  like  the  first  except  that  each  element  contains  a  dot. 


34 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


This  gives  twenty  six  different  elements  or  spaces  each  to 
contain  one  letter  of  the  alphabet.  The  elements  and  the 
order  of  the  letters  with  regard  to  them  being  established  and 
made  plain,  it  becomes  an  easy  matter  for  a  bright  subject  to 
recall  the  general  scheme  of  the  code  and  to  work  out  its 
parts  in  his  own  mind  and  to  write  a  code  word  or  sentence. 
Older  children  have  been  fairly  fascinated  by  this  interesting 
test  and  some  have  been  able  to  write  the  prescribed  sentence 
with  little  hesitation.  We  have  used  the  words,  “Come  quick¬ 
ly”  in  the  test  partly  on  account  of  appropriateness  of  the 
phrase  in  connection  with  a  war  time  code,  but  mostly  because 
the  words  contain  letters  taken  from  all  the  main  figures. 

Scoring:  This,  again,  will  have  to  be  developed  later 
since  we  have  been  using  this  test  for  only  a  few  months  and 
on  a  comparatively  small  number  of  subjects.  Types  of 
failure  or  other  points  for  scoring  will  have  to  be  worked  out. 
For  the  present  we  use  the  following: 

1.  Number  of  errors. 

2.  Errors  through  omission  of  a  dot. 

3.  Errors  where  symbol  given  is  that  preceding  or 
following  the  correct  one. 

4.  Noticeably  good  or  poor  attention. 

Record  of  Case  574  is: 

1.  I 

2.  o 

3.  o  ^ 

4.  Good.  (Kept  steadily  at  job.) 

Test  XII.  Memory  from  Visual  Verbal  Presentation 

We  have  found  that  for  purposes  of  memorizing,  at  least 
for  city  children,  a  passage  about  a  fire  offers  great  interest. 
On  this  suggestion.  Miss  Clara  Schmitt  wrote  and  first  used 
for  us  the  following  passage  which  for  scoring  may  be  divided 
into  twenty  details. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


35 


If  a  man  finds  that  the  house  is  on  fire  j  he  should  first  look  to  see 
if  it  is  a  large  fire.  |  If  it  is  a  small  one  |  he  should  quickly  pour  water 
on  it  I  or  smother  it.  |  But  if  it  is  large  ]  he  should  run  to  the  fire  alarm 
box  I  calling  out  ‘fire’  |  to  the  other  people  in  the  house.  |  Then  he 
should  go  back  |  and  help  old  or  sick  people  |  and  little  children  ]  to 
escape  from  the  burning  building.  |  When  all  the  people  are  out,  |  if  there 
is  time,  |  he  may  save  valuable  things  |  such  as  money  or  jewelry.  | 
Then  when  the  fire  engine  comes  he  |  may  help  keep  the  crowds  of  curious 
people  out  of  the  way  |  so  that  the  firemen  may  work  more  easily. 

The  nature  of  the  test  is  explained  to  the  subject  and  he  is 
asked  to  read  aloud  the  first  sentence  to  see  if  he  is  capable  of 
doing  so.  Then  he  is  told  to  read  it  to  himself  very  carefully 
once  because  we  are  going  to  ask  him  to  tell  all  about  it.  We 
tell  him,  “We  don’t  care  if  you  don’t  say  exactly  the  same 
words,  but  just  tell  us  about  everything  it  says  and  give 
everything  in  the  right  order.  ”  It  is  not  difficult  to  take  down 
as  a  matter  of  record  the  exact  words  given  in  response. 

The  significance  of  this  as  a  memory  test  is  great,  but  the 
subject’s  ability  to  read  and  to  understand  the  words  read 
must  always  be  taken  into  account.  By  our  very  instruc¬ 
tions  we  imply  the  fact  that  we  do  not  count  verbal  accuracy 
in  the  same  category  of  value  as  the  recall  of  the  ideas  and 
logical  sequence. 

Scoring:  i.  Number  of  details. 

(a)  Authentic. 

(b)  Imagined. 

(c)  Erroneous. 

2.  Verbal  Accuracy. 

(a)  Complete. 

(b)  Partial. 

(c)  No  attempt  at  verbal  accuracy. 

3.  Logical  Sequence. 

(a)  Logical  sequence,  apparent  appreciation  of. 

(b)  Recital  of  inconsequential  details. 

Record  of  Case  574  is; 

(Reads  passage  very  rapidly  to  himself.)  “If  a  man  finds 
that  his  house  is  on  fire  first  he  should  find  if  it  is  a  big  fire. 


36 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


If  not,  pour  water  over  it.  If  it  is  a  big  fire  he  should  go  to 
the  fire  alarm  box  and  on  the  way  out  call  to  people,  ‘fire.’ 
If  there  are  old  or  sick  people  he  should  go  back  and  help 
them  out.  If  time  then  should  save  valuables  and  jewelry. 
Next  when  firemen  come  should  keep  crowds  back  so  firemen 
can  work. 


(a) 

17 

(b) 

0 

(c) 

0 

(a) 

(b) 

Yes 

(c) 

(a) 

Yes. 

(b) 

Test  XIII.  Memory  from  Auditory  Verbal  Presentation 

The  scope  and  plan  of  this  memory  test  was  suggested  by 
Professor  Thorndike.  We  have  written  a  definitive  bit  of 
exposition  about  a  theme  which  has  a  special  child  interest. 
For  purposes  of  scoring  it  may  be  divided  into  twelve  details. 

“If  a  sailor  |  on  the  ocean  |  is  shipwrecked  |  in  a  wild  country,  |  he 
must  first  look  for  water  to  drink,  |  then  he  must  find  a  place  to  sleep  | 
where  wild  animals  can’t  get  at  him,  |  and  after  that  he  can  take  time 
to  look  for  food,  |  but  he  must  be  careful  not  to  eat  poisonous  berries  or 
fruit.  1  Next  he  had  better  hunt  for  other  people  on  the  land  \  and  put 
up  a  flag  1  to  stop  ships  which  may  be  going  by.” 

One  says  to  the  subject,  “I  am  going  to  read  a  story  to  you 
four  times  and  then  ask  you  what  I  said.  I  don’t  care  if 
you  don’t  give  me  the  exact  words,  but  tell  me  as  nearly  as 
you  can,  all  the  things  I  said  to  you  and  in  the  same  order.” 
It  is  then  read  four  times  clearly  and  with  varying  rapidity 
and  emphasis.  We  have  tried  reading  this  passage  a  less 
number  of  times,  but  have  always  been  dissatisfied  with  the 
results  and  have  come  back  to  Thorndike’s  original  sugges¬ 
tion.  This  and  the  preceding  test  are,  of  course,  tests  for 
memory,  but  in  as  much  as  they  are  passages  which  may 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


37 


have  mental  representations  in  pictures,  they  are  not  neces¬ 
sarily  simply  verbal  memory  tests.  They  partake  of  the 
complicated  nature  of  many  memory  processes. 

The  resul  ts  seem  to  be  worth  most  if  calculated  in  terms  of 
how  the  logical  sequence  is  given,  how  many  details  are  recalled 
and  with  what  verbal  accuracy,  or  transposition  into  the 
child’s  vernacular.  As  would  be  expected  by  anyone  famil¬ 
iar  with  the  capabilities  of  children,  we  have  sometimes  gotten 
almost  verbally  accurate  results  from  those  of  twelve  years 
and  younger.  Without  much  difficulty  we  take  a  verbatim 
record  of  the  response. 

Scoring:  i.  Number  of  details. 

(a)  Authentic. 

(b)  Imagined — details  added. 

(c)  Erroneous — details  misinterpreted. 

2.  Verbal  Accuracy. 

(a)  Complete. 

(b)  Partial. 

(c)  No  attempt  at  verbal  accuracy. 

3.  Logical  Sequence. 

(a)  Apparent  appreciation  of  logical  sequence. 

(b)  Recital  of  heterogeneous  details. 

The  record  on  Case  574  is: 

"If  a  sailor  is  shipwrecked  on  some  island  he  should  first 
look  for  water  to  drink,  next  find  some  place  to  sleep  where 
wild  animals  can’t  get  at  him  and  later  look  for  food  to  eat, 
but  he  must  watch  out  not  to  eat  poison  berries  or  things 
which  would  poison  him.  Next  look  for  people  and  put  up  a 
flag  that  shall  stop  all  ships  that  go  by  the  island.” 

1.  (a)  10 

(b)  o 

(c)  I 

2.  (a) 

(b)  + 

(c) 

(a)  Yes. 

(b) 


3- 


38 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


Test  XIV.  Instruction  Box 

We  have  long  felt  the  need  of  a  test  which  would  specific¬ 
ally  bring  out  the  capacity  which  a  subject  might  or  might 
not  have  for  following  instructions.  Sometimes  such  infor¬ 
mation  has  seemed  very  desirable  in  connection  with  the 
necessity  for  estimating  the  subject’s  probable  capacity  for 
holding  a  position.  Such  a  test  is  a  distinct  step  towards 
vocational  diagnosis,  often  a  most  desirable  part  of  psycho¬ 
pathic  work  in  connection  with  the  court.  Of  course,  others 
of  our  tests  bring  out  to  some  smaller  extent  the  power  to 
understand  and  carry  out  directions  which  are  given,  but 
at  the  instigation  of  Professor  Jastrow,  we  have  recently 
decided  to  make  a  test  especially  directed  to  this  point. 

The  finished  box  is  very  slightly  modified  from  the  ingenious 
original  plan  designed  by  Mr.  Joseph  W.  Hayes.  In  order 
to  increase,  when  necessary,  the  difficulty  of  the  test  we  have 
added  the  combination  lock. 

The  make-up  of  the  box  can  be  very  readily  understood 
from  the  following  description  with  reference  to  the  illus¬ 
trations,  Figs.  17  and  18.  Its  dimensions  are  about  6  x  5|  x 
3^  inches  and  it  may,  of  course,  be  constructed  of  any  suitable 
wood.  Fig.  17  represents  the  exterior  of  the  finished  box, 
with  one  side  painted  white  and  a  white  mark  on  the  3  x  2^^ 
inch  door  plainly  to  designate  the  stopping  place  for  the  num¬ 
bers  on  the  combination  dial.  Fig.  18  represents  an  inside 
view  of  the  front  cover  of  the  box  purposely  taken  before  the 
lock  was  put  on,  in  order  to  show  more  clearly  the  mechan¬ 
ism.  The  other  sides  and  the  bottom  of  the  box  are  perfectly 
plain  with  the  exception  that  there  are  small  notches  through 
which  the  handles  project,  these  latter  being  on  a  lower  level 
than  the  cover  itself  when  it  is  screwed  down  in  place.  The 
handles  and  arms  are  all  of  wood  except  the  small  metal  bar. 
The  door  opens  inward  and  is  held  shut  by  a  wooden  latch, 
which  can  be  turned  out  of  the  way  by  means  of  a  knob  on 
the  front  of  the  box.  This  latch  is  however  held  in  position  by 
a  small  metal  bar  swinging  on  a  pivot  and  having  its  free  end 
braced  against  the  latch.  This  bar  is  in  its  turn  held  braced 


Fic, 


Fig.  i8 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


39 


by  means  of  the  cross-bar  of  a  T-shaped  catch.  The  han¬ 
dle  of  this  latter  contrivance  is  held  firm  by  means  of  a  second 
handle  running  perpendicular  to  the  first  and  fitting  into  a 
notch  in  its  surface.  It  is  necessary  in  order  to  open  the 
door  to  make  the  following  steps  in  the  following  order.  The 
above  mentioned  second  handle  (projecting  outside  of  the 
box),  must  first  be  pulled  out  as  far  as  it  will  go,  thus  freeing 
the  other  handle,  (also  protruding  from  the  box),  which  can 
now  in  its  turn  be  pulled  out,  releasing  thus  the  pressure  of 
the  cross-piece  upon  the  metal  bar.  If  the  box  is  now  turned 
on  one  end  (which  is  painted  white  on  the  outside),  this  bar 
will  swing  down  by  its  own  weight,  freeing  the  latch  which  can 
now  be  turned  out  of  the  way  of  the  door  by  means  of  the  knob 
outside.  This  door  will  now  be  free  to  open  except  for  the 
bolt  on  the  combination  lock.  The  combination  itself  can 
be  set  to  any  desired  figures.  We  have  found  it  necessary 
to  avoid  too  great  difficulty  and  have  adjusted  the  two  tum¬ 
bler  lock  so  as  to  have  the  numbers  in  such  simple  relation 
that  it  is  not  required  to  make  turns  of  the  dial  past  a 
specified  number.  By  taking  the  tumblers  apart  we  were  able 
to  adjust  the  lock  so  that  it  is  only  necessary,  for  instance,  to 
turn  to  the  right  to  50,  then  to  the  left  to  49  and  then  to  the 
right  till  the  bolt  pulls  back.  The  reader  will  understand  that 
Fig.  18  shows  the  inside  of  the  box  without  the  combina¬ 
tion  lock,  which  when  in  place  takes  up  considerable  room 
on  the  door.  The  lock  is  one  of  the  smallest  and  simplest 
made  by  the  Yale  Lock  Company. 

The  method  of  procedure  is  simple.  The  child  is  told  that 
this  is  a  box  which  can  be  easily  opened,  if  he  follows  out 
exactly  what  you  tell  him.  We  present  it  to  him  in  the  posi¬ 
tion  shown  in  Fig.  17  and  then  by  word  and  gesture  pointing 
to  the  given  parts  so  that  there  can  be  no  lack  of  understand¬ 
ing,  we  specify  slowly  each  step.  For  instance,  one  may  say, 
“Firstyou  pull  out  the  handle  on  this  side,  so,  then  you  pull  out 
this  one  on  top,  then  you  turn  the  box  up  on  the  white  side,  like 
this,  then  you  push  this  knob  as  far  as  it  will  go  over  in  this 
direction  and  then  you  turn  the  dial  to  the  right  in  this  way, 
so  that  the  number  50  comes  exactly  to  this  white  mark. 


40 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


Then  turn  it  to  the  left  till  you  come  to  exactly  49  and  then 
turn  to  the  right  again  until  you  hear  the  bolt  pull  back. 
Then  you  can  push  the  door  open.” 

It  will  be  found  a  point  of  practical  common  sense,  if  the 
subject  fails  at  the  first  trial,  to  allow  him  to  make  a  second 
attempt,  or  even  a  third  or  fourth,  the  investigator  repeating 
the  directions,  if  he  is  not  able  to  correct  his  own  errors. 
The  combination  of  instructions  by  word  of  mouth  and  by 
manual  demonstration  is  much  the  same  as  the  subject  would 
have  offered  to  him  in  learning  office  work,  or  to  use  a  machine, 
or  in  many  other  forms  of  employment.  The  test  never 
fails  to  evoke  interest.  We  know  it  is  not  too  difficult  for 
bright  children,  but  if  necessary  the  combination  lock  need 
not  be  set  and  then  the  door  can  be  opened  at  the  end  of  four 
sequential  events.  The  performance  of  the  test  is  singularly 
independent  of  the  language  factor,  which  is  such  a  deterrent 
in  the  examination  of  children  in  our  cosmopolitan  cities. 
As  an  example,  it  may  be  stated  that  a  Greek  boy,  15  years 
old,  who  has  only  been  one  year  in  this  country,  and  who  has 
very  poor  command  of  English,  successfully  carried  through 
all  the  steps  in  45  seconds. 

Scoring:  We  have  not  had  this  test  long  enough  to  be 
able  to  specify  all  the  types  of  error  that  may  be  made,  but 
scoring  is  obviously  a  matter  of  registration  of  successes  and 
failures  of  each  step  enumerated  serially,  plus  the  time  invol¬ 
ved.  For  instance,  one  subject  may  do  the  whole  thing  suc¬ 
cessfully  in  45  seconds,  another  may  do  only  the  first  three 
steps  correctly  and  another  may  succeed  in  doing  the  first 
four  steps  correctly  and  then  blunder  for  a  time  with  the  com¬ 
bination  lock  until  he  is  able  to  correct  his  own  errors. 

Record  of  Case  574  is: 

Time  45".  Every  step  carefully,  quickly  and  cor¬ 
rectly  done. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


41 


Test  XV.  Association  of  Verbal  Opposites — Antonyms 

This  is  a  well  known  test.  The  particular  list  of  words 
we  use  is  slightly  modified  from  one  of  Thorndike’s  lists,  and 
seems  well  suited  to  our  purpose,  some  words  being  more 
difficult  than  others. 


good 

loud 

dead 

war 

outside 

black 

rich 

empty 

quick 

light 

sick 

many 

tall 

happy 

glad 

above 

big 

cheap 

thin 

friend 

With  stop  watch  in  hand,  the  investigator  must  make  quite 
plain,  with  the  help  of  a  few  trial  words,  just  what  is  expected 
in  the  way  of  answers,  e.g.,  “When  I  say  a  word  you  must 
tell  me  just  as  quickly  as  you  can  the  word  that  means  the 
other  thing  from  it,  the  opposite  to  it.  Now  if  I  say  hot, 
what  would  you  say?”  After  evidence  that  the  test  is 
comprehended  the  given  list  of  words  is  gone  through  with 
at  once  and  rapidly.  In  considering  the  results  for  estimation 
of  the  individual,  one  must  take  into  account  any  foreign 
language  factor  and  the  amount  and  kind  of  schooling  re¬ 
ceived.  These  are  of  obvious  importance  and  may  count  for 
as  much  as  native  ability.  On  account  of  the  several  envir¬ 
onmental  factors  which  tend  to  beget  poor  results  in  many 
cases,  it  has  seemed  to  us  that  positive  findings  in  the  way  of 
rapidity  and  accuracy  were  more  often  of  importance  than 
negative  ones. 

We  have  found  many  twelve  year  old  children  who  give 
correct  opposites  in  the  average  time  of  from  one  and  a  half 
to  three  and  a  half  seconds  and  who  frequently  get  through 
the  list  with  not  more  than  one  failure  and  one  or  two  errors, — 
sometimes  indeed,  the  score  in  these  respects  being  perfect. 

Scoring:  i.  Average  time  of  words  given  correctly. 

2.  Number  of  uncorrected  errors. 

3.  Number  of  failures — longer  than  10  seconds. 

4.  Failure  due  to  lack  of  knowledge,  rather  than 
slowness  of  association  time. 

5.  Foreign  language  a  factor. 


42 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


The  record  of  Case  574  is; 

I  I  I  I 

i|  I  li  5 

f  I  2 

7  I  I 

I  if  I  2 


2.  o 

3-  o 

4.  No 

5.  No 


Test  XVI.  Motor  Coordination  Test 

The  method  we  use  in  this  is  one  suggested  to  us  by  Pro-  • 
fessor  Whipple.  The  test  is  intended  to  give  some  estimate 
of  the  motor  coordinative  power  both  for  accuracy  and  rapid¬ 
ity.  Of  course,  as  associated  elements,  there  always  comes 
in  the  power  of  attention  and  the  general  mental  factors  which 
enter  into  almost  any  test.  A  printed  rectangular  form  is 
used,  divided  into  150  half  inch  squares  as  shown  in  Fig.  19. 
(Black  lines  on  white  paper  are  used.)  The  subject  is  instruc¬ 
ted  to  rest  his  arm  on  the  table  and  hold  the  pencil  straight 
up  and  down  or  nearly  so,  thus  placing  himself  in  the  most 
favorable  position.  He  is  shown  how  to  tap  once  in  each 
square,  beginning  at  the  upper  left  hand  corner  and  running 
along  the  line  that  has  ten  squares  in  it  and  reversing  direc¬ 
tion  upon  coming  to  the  end  of  the  line,  on  account  of  the 
time  saving  element.  He  is  then  told  never  to  touch  a  line 
or  miss  a  square.  It  is  emphasized  that  this  is  a  rapidity 
test.  One  must  be  careful  to  state  that  no  effort  need  be 
made  to  leave  a  pencil  mark  in  a  square — a  mere  tap  is 
sufficient.  Start  is  made  at  the  signal,  ‘Go’,  and  the  signal 
to  end  is  the  word,  ‘Stop’,  given  sharply  at  the  end  of  thirty 
seconds.  The  test  is  repeated  immediately  for  comparative 
purposes,  using  the  other  end  of  the  rectangle.  Errors  can  be 
counted  as  the  test  is  being  made. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


43 


Perhaps  more  lack  of  willingness  to  do  their  best  is  shown 
here  than  in  any  other  test,  but  after  all,  that  factor  with  the 
class  of  young  people  we  examine  has  very  rarely  to  be  con¬ 
tended  with.  Lack  of  control  from  sheer  nervousness  is 
sometimes  encountered  and  often  curious  irregularities  are 


Fig.  19 


obtained  from  the  mentally  unbalanced.  Our  12  year  olds 
frequently  do  from  65  to  75  in  30  seconds,  with  o  to  4  errors. 

Scoring)  i.  Number  of  squares  tapped  in  30  seconds  on 
each  of  two  trials. 

2.  Number  of  errors  in  each  trial  (including 
skipping  a  square,  touching  a  line,  or  making 
more  than  one  dot  in  a  single  square). 


44 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


Record  of  Case  574  is; 

1.  (i)  86 

(2)  92 

2.  (i)  o 
(2)  o 


Test  XVII.  Writing 

For  the  purpose  of  this  test  we  ask  the  subject  to  write  a 
short  standard  sentence  and  his  name.  For  estimating,  it 
seems  wise  to  us  to  have  average  samples  which  have  been 
written  by  pupils  of  the  grade  which  the  subject  has  reached. 
These  will  be  easily  obtained  from  teachers. 


Scoring : 

(I) 

Can’t  write. 

(a)  Insufficient  schooling. 

(b)  Ordinarily  sufficient  schooling. 

(2) 

Normal,  poor,  or  good  for  grade, 
corded  by  N.,  P.,  or  G.). 

(3) 

Slow  or  fast  (Recorded  by^S.  or  F.). 

Record  of 

T 

Case  574  is; 

1 . 

2. 

N. 

3- 

F. 

Test  XVIII.  Arithmetic 

The  test  to  be  assigned  in  number  work  may  be  based  on 
the  work  of  the  grade  in  which  the  subject  last  was. 

Scoring:  (i)  Knowledge  of  method.  (Recorded  by  +  or 

-.) 

(2)  Accuracy.  (Recorded  by  +  or  — ) 

(3)  Speed.  (Recorded  by  +  or  — ) 

It  may  be  possible  later  to  amplify  these  scores  by  a  study 
of  the  types  of  errors  which  are  made. 

Record  of  Case  574  is; 


(I) 

Partial 

(2) 

+ 

(3) 

+ 

TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


45 


Test  XIX.  Reading 


For  the  purposes  of  this  test  a  passage  should  be  selected 
which  is  suited  in  difficulty  to  the  grade  which  the  child  has 
reached  in  school.  Such  passages  may  be  readily  obtained 
from  teachers. 


Scoring: 


(1)  Can’t  read. 

(a)  Foreign  language  a  factor. 

(b)  Insufficient  schooling. 

(c)  Ordinarily  sufficient  schooling. 

(2)  Reads  monosyllables  only. 

(3)  Fails  on  longer  words. 

(4)  Normally  rapid  and  well  for  grade. 

(5)  Noticeably  fluent  and  expressive. 


Record  of  Case  574  is; 

1.  - 

2.  - 

3-  - 

4.  Yes,  plus. 

5-  - 


Test  XX.  Checkers 


A  test  which  may  guage  the  subject’s  powers  of  foresight 
is  undoubtedly  of  value  for  our  work.  Indeed  the  whole 
possible  relationship  of  foresightedness  to  moral  behavior  is 
most  interesting.  Fortunately  in  the  game  of  checkers  we 
have  an  easy  test  which  may  show  some  of  the  mental  quality 
mentioned.  However,  it  is  only  fair  to  apply  the  test  with 
those  subjects  who  know  the  game  and  who  have  played  it 
sufficiently  to  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  it.  It  seems  fairly 
clear  that  under  these  circumstances  the  results  obtained,  at 
least  when  very  good  or  when  very  bad,  must  be  of  consider¬ 
able  significance  for  estimation  of  the  sort  of  foresightedness 
which  the  game  calls  for.  Unless  one  knows  certainly  that 
the  subject  has  had  good  instruction  and  plenty  of  practice, 
negative  results  should  not  count  for  much.  We  find  quite 
a  few  youngsters,  especially  from  institutions,  who  have 


46 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


played  a  good  deal  and  once  in  a  while  it  is  possible  to  get 
hold  of  even  a  12  year  old  boy  who  plays  a  distinctly  good 
game. 

Scoring:  i .  Misses  more  than  three  advantageous  chances 
to  take  men. 

2.  Careful,  but  not  noticeably  foresigh  ted  game. 

3.  Foresigh  ted  game. 

Record  for  Case  574  is: 

Said  he  had  played  much. 

1.  Yes. 

2.  - 

3-  - 

Test  XXL  Reactions  to  Moral  Questions 

The  use  of  this  test  is  altogether  due  to  the  suggestion  of 
Professor  F.  C.  Sharp,  who  has  used  the  same  method  and 
indeed  the  same  questions  extensively  in  a  research  of  his 
own. 

This  is  an  interesting  test  from  several  standpoints.  In 
the  first  place,  with  it  one  can  guage  somewhat  the  powers 
of  intellectual  comprehension  of  a  moral  situation  as  expres¬ 
sed  in  language.  Where  an  opinion  is  expressed  clearly  and 
definitely  about  the  nature  of  the  action  in  the  story,  or  where 
there  is  maintained  a  strong  idea  about  what  should  be  done 
in  like  circumstances,  then  one  may  obtain  some  workings  of 
the  individual’s  consciousness  upon  ethical  lines. 

The  test  needs  almost  no  introduction.  We  say,  “I  am 
going  to  tell  you  a  story  and  you  tell  me  what  you  think  about 
it.”  Then  the  problem  is  at  once  narrated,  if  necessary,  in 
the  vernacular  of  the  individual.  Such  explanation  as  may  be 
needful  for  the  correct  understanding  of  the  story  is  always 
given  if  required,  but  there  is  little  trouble  about  this  matter 
when  the  gist  of  the  problem  is  outlined  in  something  like  the 
straight-forward  statement  made  by  Sharp.  Naturally,  of 
course,  one  has,  for  the  younger  subjects,  to  make  the  state¬ 
ment  somewhat  more  personal  and  elaborate  than  given  in  the 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


47 


mere  outline.  For  instance,  in  the  second  problem,  we  find  it 
more  efficacious  to  say,  "What  would  you  have  done  if  you 
had  been  captain  of  the  village?”  A  short  amount  of  cross 
examination  we  have  often  found  necessary  in  order  to  find 
out  the  child’s  real  opinion  and  also  to  ascertain  if  he  would 
change  this,  and  to  see  if  he  possesses  realization  of  the  com¬ 
plexities  the  situation  presents.  It  is  usually  easy  to  record 
the  answers  verbatim  or  as  memoranda. 

Professor  Sharp’s  concise  statement  of  the  problems  is 
something  as  follows: 

(1)  In  a  Russian  city  last  year  there  lived  a  man  who  could 
get  no  work.  He  had  for  a  neighbor  a  sick  widow  with  two 
little  children,  who  were  starving.  The  poor  man  took  some 
bread  that  did  not  belong  to  him  from  a  baker’s  shop,  because 
he  could  get  it  in  no  other  way  and  gave  it  to  the  widow  and 
her  children.  Did  he  do  right  or  wrong? 

(2)  A  settlement  was  once  besieged  by  a  large  body  of 
Indians  because  the  chief  thought  that  one  of  the  white  men 
had  done  him  an  injury,  though  he  really  had  not  done  so. 
The  chief  sent  word  to  the  captain  of  the  village  that  if  the 
man  was  given  up  to  him  he  would  go  away,  but  if  not  he 
would  burn  the  village  and  kill  the  people.  The  captain 
and  the  people  knew  that  if  the  Indians  attacked  them  they 
would  be  very  likely  to  capture  the  settlement  and,  at  least, 
would  kill  a  good  many.  They  also  knew  that  their  fellow 
citizen  was  innocent  and  that  to  give  him  up  meant  torture 
and  death  for  him. 

What  was  the  right  thing  for  the  captain  of  the  village  to 
do  and  why? 

What  would  you  have  done  if  you  had  been  captain? 

We  have  long  since  concluded  that  for  our  purposes,  one 
of  the  best  points  connected  with  this  test  is  that  it  offers  a 
good  opportunity  for  estimation  of  the  subject’s  power  of 
intellectual  comprehension.  Beyond  this,  we  have  found  in 
many  cases  the  answers  given  apparently  mean  very  little 
with  regard  to  the  subject’s  own  moral  nature.  Certainly 
we  would  hesitate  much  to  draw  therefrom  inferences  about 


48 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


the  possibilities  of  his  conduct.  But  occasionally  we  have 
received  such  striking  reactions  that  we  have  felt  we  had 
gained  a  considerable  insight  into  the  character  of  the  indi¬ 
vidual;  for  instance,  if  he  steadily  dwells  upon  the  necessity 
for  bravery  or  for  self-sacrifice  in  answer  to  the  second  problem. 
We  must  then  form  quite  a  different  impression  about  his 
moral  make-up  than  if  his  statement  expressly  stands  for 
selfishness.  Expressions  such  as  “Take  care  of  yourself 
every  time,  that’s  what  I  say,’’  “Get  out  of  it  yourself,  if 
you  can,  and  let  the  other  fellows  look  out  for  themselves’’ 
mean  something  quite  different  from,  “It’s  a  captain’s  duty 
to  take  care  of  his  people.  If  that  man  was  a  very  valuable 
man,  the  captain  should  go  out  and  offer  himself  to  take  the 
man’s  place.  ’  ’  Then  there  is  a  type  of  mind,  we  discover, 
which  will  venture  an  opinion  wavering  with  every  little 
breath  of  suggestion  from  us.  That  seems  significant  in 
contradistinction  to  the  sturdiness  of  others  who  maintain 
steadily  their  first  point  of  view. 

The  idea  has  been  offered  us  that  the  first  question  might 
contain  a  thought  which  would  be  harmful  to  children,  but 
we  concur  in  the  opinion  expressed  by  Binet  that  children 
are  by  no  means  as  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  little  stories 
of  morbidity  and  human  peculiarities  as  people  generally 
believe.  We  have  been  interested  time  and  again  in  noting 
the  excessive  reaction  against  the  action  of  the  poor  man 
who  steals  to  give  to  starving  children  by  the  very  youngsters 
who  are  themselves  chronic  little  thieves.  However,  on  the 
whole,  the  first  problem  seems  decidedly  the  less  valuable  and 
we  frequently  omit  it. 

Scoring’,  So  far,  we  conceive  the  best  points  to  score  from 
the  investigator’s  full  memoranda  are  the  following: 

1.  Apparently  a  more  or  less  haphazard  reply  given 
at  first,  followed  by 

(a)  An  unthinking  contradiction  in  response 
to  your  suggestions. 

(b)  A  childish  repetition  of  his  original  state¬ 
ment  without  considering  your  arguments. 

2.  Apparent  comprehension  of  the  moral  situation. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


49 


Record  of  Case  574  is: 

I.  Done  wrong  cause  he  stole.  Done  right  if  he 
stole  for  starving  people.  He  could  have  asked 
for  it.  Yes,  think  he  did  wrong.  (Would  you 
have  done  wrong  then  if  in  his  place?)  I  sup¬ 
pose  so.  (Slow.  Shows  suspicion  in  answer¬ 
ing  this.) 

II.  No,  I’d  have  fought — as  long  as  the  man  hadn’t 
done  wrong.  Even  if  many  were  killed  and 
village  burned  still  will  be  better  than  to  give 
up  innocent  man.  (Persists  in  this.) 


I.  I. 

(a) 

Yes. 

(b) 

No. 

2. 

No. 

II.  I. 

No. 

2. 

Yes. 

Decidedly  good  comprehension. 

Test 

XXII.  Information 

The  following  list  of  questions  to  be  asked  has  been  gotten 
out  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  eliciting  the  actual  informa¬ 
tion  possessed  by  the  individual,  but  also  in  order  to  get  at 
what  his  opportunities  have  been  in  general  environment  and 
in  school  life.  Through  this  inquiry  one  can  readily  get 
some  indication  of  the  amusements,  occupations  and  aspira¬ 
tions  of  the  subject.  (Perhaps  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say 
that  when  special  points  of  character  or  mental  peculiarity 
are  involved,  a  very  much  more  extensive  inquiry  about  mo¬ 
tives,  and  interests  and  opportunities  is  always  instituted  by 
us.)  Questions  may  be  asked  and  answers  filled  out  to  any 
extent  deemed  advisable,  but  for  our  purposes  the  following 
list  has  been  made  up  with  the  help  of  experienced  teachers 
and  after  much  consideration  of  both  the  healthy  and  unheal¬ 
thy  interests  fostered  by  the  every-day,  city  life  of  young  peo¬ 
ple.  The  grouping  and  the  purpose  of  the  questions  is  apparent 
to  the  reader.  The  questions  are  verbally  presented  and  the 
answers  may  be  rapidly  filled  in  as  memoranda  by  the  inves¬ 
tigator.  Under  this  procedure  the  whole  list  takes  up  only 
a  short  time. 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


SO 


Read  books? 

What  ones? 

From  library? 

How  many  at  home? 

Read  newspapers?  Which? 

What  parts? 

What  has  interested  you  lately? 

Ask  about  recent  murder  or  burglary, 
Ask  about  recent  disaster,  etc. 

Who  is  President  U.  S.? 

President  before  him? 

First  President? 

What  celebration  is  4th  of  July? 
Abraham  Lincoln?  Who?  When? 
What  lake  by  Chicago? 

Five  Great  Lakes? 

Largest  city  in  America? 

Capitol — where  President  lives? 
Jesse  James?  Who?  Where  hear  of 
him? 

What  does  cow-boy  do? 

Best  base-ball  team  last  year? 
Champion  prize  fighter? 

Champion  wrestler? 

Been  to  many  plays? 

Best  one  you  ever  saw? 

What  is  steam?  How  works  an 
engine? 

Electricity?  What  does  it  do? 
What  heart  beats  for? 


What  makes  light  of  moon? 

Flour  made  from? 

Mortar  made  from? 

Where  do  coal,  oranges,  cattle  etc. 
come  from? 

What  do  you  expect  to  be  when 
grown  up? 

,  What  do  you  want  to  be? 

Jobs  easiest?  Most  dangerous? 
Father  belong  to  trade  union? 

What  do  you  think  of  them? 

Play  what  out-door  games? 

Cards?  What  games? 

Have  you  tools? 

What  things  ever  made? 

Pet  animals? 

/ 

Collections?  Car  transfers,  buttons, 
pictures,  stones,  shells,  stamps,  etc. 
Dolls? 

Cooking?  What? 

Fancy  work? 

Sewing?  Make  own  clothes? 
Athletics?  Where?  What?  How 
good? 

Parties?  What?  With  whom? 
Theatres?  With  whom? 

Nickel  shows  often?  With  whom? 
Games  at  home? 

Classes;  singing  etc? 

Music?  Instruction? 


Tentative  Classification. 

We  have  had  surprisingly  little  trouble  with  the  classifica¬ 
tion  of  cases  in  the  scale  of  mental  ability  as  given  below. 
Perhaps  that  is  because  no  a  priori  standpoint  was  taken  and 
divisions  were  not  forced.  We  followed  the  scheme  of  waiting 
till  about  250  cases  had  been  seen  and  then  these  were  sorted 
into  the  places  into  which  they  seemed  themselves  to  fall. 
This  system  quickly  led  to  the  classification  which,  with  a 
little  more  exact  definition  and  slight  modifications,  has 
proven  well  its  practicability.  It  is  only  rarely  that  we  feel 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


51 


unable  to  decide  between  two  classes  in  the  following  schedule, 
although  we  still  conceive  it  to  be  entirely  tentative. 

(a)  Considerably  above  ordinary  in  ability  and  informa¬ 
tion — the  latter  estimated  with  reference  to  age  and  social 
advantages. 

(b)  Ordinary  in  ability  and  information — the  latter  esti¬ 
mated  with  reference  to  age  and  social  advantages. 

(c)  Native  ability  fair  and  formal  educational  advantages 
fair  or  good,  but  very  poorly  informed. 

(d)  Native  ability  fair  and  formal  educational  advantages 
fair  or  good. 

(e)  Native  ability  distinctly  good,  but  formal  educational 
advantages  poor. 

(f)  Native  ability  fair  and  formal  educational  advantages 
poor. 

(g)  Native  ability  poor  and  formal  educational  advan¬ 
tages  poor. 

(h)  Native  ability  poor  and  formal  educational  advantages 
good  or  fair. 

(i)  Dull  from  known  physical  causes,  including  epilepsy. 

(j)  Subnormal  mentality— considerably  more  educability 
than  the  feeble-minded. 

(k)  Feeble-minded,  (Moron). 

(l)  Imbecile. 

(m)  Psychoses. 

(Estimation  ‘formal  educational  advantages  poor’  includes 
no  implication  of  cause,  it  may  be  due  to  chronic  truancy  or 
to  faulty  environment.) 

Over  and  beyond  this  general  classification  there  is  cer¬ 
tainly  often  much  else  that  may  usefully  be  said  about  the 
subject  from  a  psychological  standpoint.  During  the  course 
of  work  with  him  other  points  of  inestimable  value  in  diag¬ 
nosis  may  be  discovered.  Adventitiously  we  may  find  indi¬ 
viduals  markedly  lacking  in  general  powers  of  attention, 
emotionally  disturbed  by  special  circumstances,  wanting 
in  normal  interests  of  their  age  and  sex,  tremendously  defec¬ 
tive  in  veracity  and  so  on.  Then,  on  the  positive  side,  we 
have  found  instances  with  important  unsuspected  abilities 


52 


WILLIAM  HEALY  AND  GRACE  M.  FERNALD 


for  art,  mechanics  or  language,  or  with  highly  developed 
standards  of  bravery,  honor  and  even  honesty — any  of  which 
points  may  well  seem  determinative  for  prognosis,  if  the  indi¬ 
vidual  can  be  placed  under  favorable  conditions.  Some 
discovery  of  aptitude  or  inaptitude,  such  as  constructive 
ability  or  deficiency,  is  most  valuable  from  the  standpoint 
of  vocational  diagnosis  which  one  is  often  called  on  to  make. 
As  an  instance  of  what  effort  may  be  wasted  if  the  case  is  not 
studied  before  treatment,  the  following  is  instructive;  we 
lately  examined  a  boy  who  had  much  difficulty  in  manipu¬ 
lating  our  constructive  tests  and  who  showed  no  interest  in 
any  way  in  mechanical  contrivances.  This  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  he  had  been  two  years  at  the  state  manual 
training  school.  That  institution  had  given  him  up  as  a  bad 
job,  after  he  had  run  away  some  four  or  five  times,  out  of 
sheer  lack  of  interest  in  the  special  opportunities  presented  to 
him.  Now  if  he  had  been  tested  before  being  assigned  to  this 
school,  the  outcome  might  have  been  foreseen,  so  obviously 
unadapted  was  he  to  the  type  of  occupation  forced  on  him. 
A  striking  proof  of  the  reverse  we  have  seen  in  the  instance 
of  a  15-year-old  orphan  boy,  notorious  for  deeds  so  peculiarly 
vicious  that  he  was  said  to  be  insane  at  times.  He  had  com¬ 
mitted  one  decidedly  serious  crime.  Badly  handicapped  by 
partial  deafness  from  bilateral  middle  ear  disease  and  ex¬ 
tremely  refractory  to  rules  of  conduct  the  boy  was,  even  in 
reformatory  institutions,  considered  a  distinctly  undesirable 
person.  Finally,  while  he  was  being  studied  by  us,  it  was  dis¬ 
covered  that  he  had  considerable  talent  for  drawing.  Then  it 
followed  that  with  encouragement,  instruction  and  the  placing 
of  art  materials  in  his  hands,  his  criminal  deeds  and  ‘insane 
spells’  at  once  dropped  away  from  him  like  shackles.  This 
opportunity  for  self  expression  has  given  him  just  the  one 
satisfactory  interest  in  life  that  he  has  ever  possessed. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  all  the  psychological  findings  can  not 
be  expressed  in  terms  of  any  classification.  We  find  it  best 
always  to  write  up  in  detail  special  impressions  directly 
after  the  examination — impressions  that  may  well  be  modified 
as  the  case  is  followed  and  further  observation  is  made. 


TESTS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION 


53 


It  is,  of  course,  to  be  clearly  understood  that  where  special 
problems  are  involved,  for  instance,  in  cases  of  suspected 
dementia  praecox,  the  above  tests  are  supplemented  by 
others  especially  adapted. 

Tabular  Scoring  Record 

We  append  herewith  a  tabular  scoring-form.  For  the 
practical  purpose  of  comparing  results  of  tests  with  one 
another  in  the  same  individual  or  similar  tests  in  different 
individuals  of  the  same  age  a  businesslike  arrangement  is 
essential.  To  Mr.  W.  F.  Dummer  is  due  the  credit  of  having 
developed  the  following  ledger  form,  which  by  a  system  of 
colored  lines  makes  tabulation  and  future  deciphering  par¬ 
ticularly  easy. 


■» ; 


I* 


